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Book 



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FIRST YEAR 

COTTON SPINNING 

COURSE 



FIRST YEAR 

COTTON SPINNING 

COURSE 



BY 

H. A. J. DUNCAN 

ASSOCIATE OP THE 'Textile institute 

COTTON-SPINNING MILL MANAGER 

CHI:P COTTON SPINNING LECTURER, WIGAN AND DISTRICT 

MINING AND TECHNICAL COLLEGE 




LONDON 
SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. 
PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2 

BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK 
1928 



33? 






^ 



l^' 



PKINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN 
AT THE PITMAN PRESS, BATH 



^ PREFACE 

This work is based on the Union of Lancashire and 
Cheshire Institutes Syllabus entirely, with a view to 
(1) giving the students a definite work of reference, 
and (2) relieving the teachers of some of the dicta- 
tion which is at present found necessary in class 
work. 

The writer's cordial thanks are due to the machine 
makers who have so unselfishly given their help in the 
making of such clear illustrations, and to his col- 
leagues at Wigan, Messrs. H. Thistlethwaite and D. 
Grogan, whose assistance has been invaluable. 

H. A. J. D. 



CONTENTS 



PART I 
COTTON SPINNING 

CHAP. 

I. COTTON, GENERAL .... 

II. SPECIAL FEATURES OF KINDS OF COTTON 

III. GINNING AND BALING 

l\a. COTTON SPINNING MACHINERY . 

lYb. BALE BREAKERS .... 

V. THE MIXING OF COTTON . 

VI. MIXING AND BLOWING ROOM MACHINERY 

VII. CARDING ..... 

VIII. DRAWFRAMES ..... 

IX. BOBBIN AND FLYFLAMES . 

X. RING SPINNING FRAMES . 

XI. MULE SPINNING .... 



PAGE 

1 

11 

23 

27 

38 

45 

56 

83 

92 

100 

112 

129 



PART II 
TEXTILE MATHEMATICS 



I. 


ARITHMETIC . 


. 


. 147 


II. 


MENSURATION 




. 165 


III. 


ALGEBRA 


. 


. 170 


IV. 


GRAPHS . 




. 179 


V. 


LOGARITHMS . 


PART III 


. 183 



TEXTILE DRAWING . . . . . .191 

TEST PAPERS ....... 207 

SYLLABUS OF FIRST YEAR COURSE IN COTTON 

SPINNING ....... 224 

INDEX ........ 229 



FIG. 
1. 
lA. 

2. 

2a. 

2b. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 

19. 

20. 

21. 

22. 

23! 

24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35. 

36. 

36a. 

36b. 

37. 

38. 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Sea Island Cotton Bolls 

Cotton Seeds with Fibres Attached 

Cotton Fields — Gathering the Raw Material 

Section Through Saw Gin 

Single-action Macarthy Gin . 

Hopper Bale Breaker .... 

Hopper Feeding Machine 
Exhaust Opener and Lap Machine 
Single Scutcher and Lap Machine . 
Single Scutcher and Lap Machine . 
Revolving Flat Carding Engine 
Drawing Frame ..... 

Intermediate or Roving Frame 

Ring Spinning Frame .... 

Self-acting Mule ..... 

Sectional View of Hopper Bale Breaker . 
Spiked Lifting Lattice .... 

Spiked Lifting Lattice .... 

Plan and Elevation of Mixing Lattices . 
Pneumatic Delivery for Cotton Mixings . 
Pneumatic Delivery for Cotton Mixings (Plan and 
tion) ...... 

Patent Rivet Catcher .... 

Section Through Intermediate Delivery Box 
Section Through Last Delivery Box 
Hopper Feeder with Filling Motion 
Platts' Feeder, Opener, and Bale Breaker 
Lattice Feeding Machine 

Dust Trunk 

Lattice Feeder and Crighton Opener 

Double Exhaust Opener and Lap Machine 

Single Scutcher and Lap Machine . 

Arrangement of Beater Bars, Cages, and Fan 

Buckley Opener Cylinder 

Porcupine Cylinder with Cast-iron Toothed Discs 

Porcupine Cylinder with Steel Blades 

Improved Toothed Beater 

Two-blade Beater .... 

Three-blade Beater .... 

Exhaust Opener Beater 

Conical Beater for Crighton Opener 

Crighton Opener Bars .... 

Gearing of Single Horizontal Opener 

Plan of Single Beater Scutcher 



Eleva- 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. 

39. Revolving Flat Carding Engine 

40. Improved Five Setting Point Flexible Bend 

41. Bullough's Bend . 

42. Diagram of Coiler Gearing 

43. Gearing Plan of Card . 

44. Section of Drawing Frame 

45. Ermen's Clearer . 

46. Coiling Motion 

47. Gearing for Drawing Frames 

48. Section of Flyframes 

49. Creel for Flyframes 

50. Creel for Flyframes (End Elevation) 

51. Methods of Cleaning Drawing Rollers 

52. Section of Roller Stand 

53. Gearing Plan of Flyframe 

54. Spindle Footstep Lubricator 

55. Passage of Cotton Through a Ringframe 

56. Dead Weighting .... 

57. Lever Weighting ... 

58. Lappet of Thread Board 

59. Elevations of Various Creels 

60. " Simplex " Flexible Spinning Spindles 

61. Simplex Flexible Spinning Spindles for Spinning on Paper 

Tubes 

62. Tape Drive to Spindles of Ring Spinning Frames 

63. Tin Rollers of Ringframe 

64. Traveller for Regulating Yarn Wound on Bobbi 

65. Blinker Separators 

66. Section of Ring Spinning Frame 

67. Separators .... 

68. Gearing from Tin Roller Shaft to Rollers (Ringframe) 

69. Section Through Creel and Carriage (Mule) 

70. Platts' Drawing-out Motion . 
7L Side -elevation of Spindle Drive 

72. Side -elevation of Spindle Drive 

73. Platts' Taking-in Motion 

74. Taking-in Motion, Strap Controlled 

75. Gearing of Self-acting Mule . 

76. Mule Spindles .... 

77. Mule Roller Traverse . 

78. Wrap Block for Slivers and Rovings 

79. Yarn Wrap Reel .... 

80. Sensitive Balance 

81. Knowles' Balance 

82. Conditioning Oven 

83. Example of Use of Graphs . 

84. Example of Use of Graphs . 

85. Example of Isometric Drawing 

86. Example of Isometric Drawing 

87. Plan and Elevation 

88. Plan and Elevation 



IX 



X ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. 

89. Plan and Elevation 

90. Scales Used in Drawing 

91. Standard Whitworth Nut 

92. Bolt, Nut, and Lock Nut 

93. Pitch of Thread . 

94. Pitch of Thread . 

95. Fastening Pulleys to Shafts 

96. Types of Rivets Before being Driven in 

97. Types of Rivets After being Driven in 

98. Single Riveted Lap Joint 

99. Double Riveted Lap Joint 

100. Rivets and Rivet Joints 

101. Box Coupling 

102. Flanged Coupling 

103. Sectional Shading for Various Materials 



PAGE 

195 
196 
197 
198 
199 
199 
200 
202 
202 
203 
203 
204 
204 
204 
205 



FIRST YEAR 

COTTON SPINNING 

COURSE 

PART I 
COTTON SPINNING 

CHAPTER I 

The Cotton Plant 
{Botanical Classification) 

The cotton plant, like all other trees, shrubs, plants, etc., has 
a botanical importance quite independent of its wonderful 
commercial value to the staple industry of Lancashire and 
other places. 

Also, as we find in the case of roses, etc., there are many 
types of cotton plant, each of which has its own peculiar 
characteristics. The botanical name given to the cotton 
plant is — 

GOSSYPIUM 
and the following are the chief types of the plant. 

1. Gossypium Barbaderise. Originally grown in the Bar- 
bados, and the best type of cotton grown. 

2. Gossypium Herbaceum. A very hardy plant as the name 
implies, found growing commonly in India and Egypt. 

3. Gossyjnum, Hirsutum. A hairy plant. This is the usual 
type of American cotton. 

4. Gossypium Arhoreum. Tree cotton. Grows to a much 
greater height than the ordinary types of cotton, and generally 
gives fruit for a few years instead of being planted annually. 

5. Gossypium Neglectum. Growii chiefly in India. 

6. Gossypium Peruvanum. A native of Peru. 



2 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

There are, of course, other types, but the above are the 
principal classes which we cotton users are likel}^ to come into 
contact with. 

The Growth of the Plant, etc. 

The cotton plant is essentially a tropical one, and for this 
reason we only find it grown in the world's areas approximately 
40° N. and S. of the Equator. 




From " Cotton " (Peake) 
Fig. 1. Sea Island Cotton Bolls 

Owing to the tremendous variation in the seasons in different 
countries the time of growth of the cotton plant varies very 
considerably, but its general method of cultivation is the same, 
although in some districts natural conditions are ample for 
successful results, whereas other districts have to employ 
artificial methods. 

The plant grows somewhat as follows : The ground is broken 
uj) and furrowed and the seed sown in the furrows. About 



THE COTTON PLANT 3 

10 to 14 days after sowing the young shoots appear, and a 
httle later defective plants, etc., are weeded out. The bud 
appears about 2 months after sowing, a month later the flower, 
and the pod will burst not more than 2 months after the 
flower has appeared. 

It will be seen, therefore, that the cultivation of the cotton 
plant to its ripe state takes round about 3J to 5 months, 
although this time will depend to a very large degree on local 
conditions. 

During the earlier periods of the plant's life frequent rains 




From " BleacMng, Dyeing, Printing, and Finishing " (Mc.Myn) 

Fig. 1a. Cotton Seeds with 

Fibres Attached 

of a light nature are desirable, but when the pod is ripening, 
dry, hot weather is essential. 

The cotton pod is about the size of a small apple and is the 
container for the seeds, usually about thirty in number. It 
is these seeds which give us our raw cotton, which is nothing 
more nor less than a fibrous, downy covering for the seeds, 
intended by nature as an aid to the carrjring of these seeds to 
new ground for future growth ; industry, however, stepped in 
and found a better use for these fibres. 

In weight there is about twice as much seed as cotton fibre, 
so that only about one-third of that which is picked is useful 
from a cotton spinning point of view, although the seeds, which 



4 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

are separated from the fibres by the process known as ginning, 
are carefully selected for the following year's crop. 

The cotton is picked by hand, and as the fibres adhere very 
firmly to the seeds at one end, it is quite impossible to pick one 
without the other, and, of course, a certain amount of stalk, 
leaf, etc., is also picked with them. Particularly is this the case 
in America where such a large crop has to be dealt with in the 
shortest possible time. When the cotton plant ripens the pods 
burst and expose the cotton and seeds, and it is due in a great 
measure to this exposure that sand and other foreign matter 
are picked with the cotton. 

The average cotton seed is the same size as a pea. As is the 
case in the growth of all plants, there are several agents which 
have an injurious effect on the cotton plant ; the chief of 
which are : (1) too dry or too wet weather ; (2) too hot or too 
cold weather ; (3) insects. Probably the most serious is (3), as 
the insect pest can quite easily ruin a large proportion of the 
crop. So serious is this trouble that the plants are sprayed 
periodically, and in America during the past two years 
aeroplanes have been used for the sprajdng of gases to kill 
these pests. 

The best known insects are the Boll Weevil and the Cotton 
Caterpillar. 

One of the solutions used for their extermination is a mixture 
having as some of its ingredients arsenic and red lead. 

The best conditions for the growing of cotton may be 
summarized as follows — 

1. A light, loamy soil containing limy substances. 

2. A temperature ranging from about 70° to 80° F. during 
growth. 

3. A good rainfall or else good irrigation. 

4. A humid atmosphere. 

THE PROPERTIES OF COTTON FIBRES 

Ripe cotton fibres are twisted cylindrical tubes, being about 
the same width throughout their length except for about the 
last one-twentieth farthest away from the seed which tapers 
off to a point (these pointed ends are broken off in the initial 
processes). They are about 1,200 times as long as they are 
broad, and are coated with A\ax to the extent of about one- 
hundredth of their total weight, and this wax softens and helps 



THE COTTON PLANT O 

to make the fibres pliable in the warm, humid atmosphere of 
the mill. 

Ripe cotton is made up of the following : cellulose, carbon, 
and water (CgH^^oOg), and the cotton pod when developed is 
called boll, while cotton immediately after picking is called 
seed coUo7i. 

When comparing one lot of cotton with another for qualit}' 
and value, the following are the projaerties from which we 
should make our comparison. 



1. 


Natural twist. 


6. 


Colour. 


2. 


Length of fibre. 


7, 


Elasticity. 


3. 


Strength of fibre. 


8. 


Cleanliness. 


4. 


Fineness. 


9. 


Freedom from short-cut 


5. 


Uniformity. 




fibres, neppy, or dead fibres. 



Cotton fibres vary very considerably in length, being from 
about 2 J in. in the best Sea Islands to about f in. in the poorest 
Indian, and invariably the longest fibres are the thinnest, so 
that we find Sea Islands j ,jVt7 in. in diameter, while Indian is 
something like yyVo ^^^ 

The longest and thinnest fibres make the finest and best 
yarns because they contain the most natural twists, and we 
are able to get the largest number of fibres in the cross -section 
of the yarn. 

In colour cotton is, generally speaking, from white to 
creamy, but there are many exceptions, the most notable 
being Brown Egyptian (this is really golden in colour) and 
Red Peruvian (which is the deepest coloured cotton grown). 

Natural Twist 

This is the most important and distinctive feature of the 
cotton fibre, and is probably the principal reason that it is the 
most used textile fibre in the world. The cause of this natural 
twist is that when the fibres are ripening the sap, which runs 
up the hollow in the centre of the fibre, is withdrawn into the 
seed, thus causing the fibre to twist round. 

Natural twist helps in a very large degree to make strong, 
round, solid yarns, by making the fibres cling to one another 
in a manner which is quite impossible in other textile fibres. 

Long thin fibres such as Sea Islands contain' the most 



6 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

natural twists, round about 300 per in., Egyptian have about 
180, while Indian have only just over 100 per in. 

THE DEFECTS IN COTTON 

As is only to be expected, cotton contains quite considerable 
amounts of impurities and several very troublesome defects, 
the chief of which are— 



1. 


Seeds. 


7. 


Broken fibres. 


2. 


Seed husks. 


8. 


Unripe fibres. 


3. 


Broken leaf and stalk. 


9. 


Dead fibres. 


4. 


Sand and Mineral matter. 


10. 


Motes. 


5. 


Excessive moisture. 


11. 


Stained fibres. 


6. 


Nep. 







In addition to the above all cotton contains a certain 
percentage of short fibre, which is taken out in the scutching, 
carding, and combing processes. 

Seeds 

These are all supposed to be removed by the ginning process, 
but owing to the imperfections of the machines and other 
causes some get to the mill and are removed by the opening 
and scutching processes. 

The best of the seeds are selected for the following year's crop, 
while the remainder are used up for the manufacture of cattle 
food, cotton seed oil, and manure. 

Seed Husks, Broken Leaf, and Stalk 

These are found in the cotton for two reasons : (1) Faulty 
picking, and (2) Faulty ginning. 

No matter how much care is taken in picking, which is done 
by hand, mechanical means, up to the present at any rate, 
having failed, some of these impurities are bound to get into 
the cotton, on account of the fact that the cotton bolls are 
so close to the leaves. 

Especially is this the case in American cotton, where speed 
of picking is the first essential. 

Sand and Mineral Matter 

These impurities also are in a large measure due to faulty 
picking, but in many instances they are unavoidable, as when 



THE COTTON PLANT 7 

the bolls burst, the fibres being exposed are susceptible to 
gathering any sand, dust, etc., which may be blown about by 
the winds. It must not be forgotten, however, that in many 
cases sand and metal are put into the bales as a means of 
adulteration. 

Excessive Moisture 

Owing to its absorbing nature cotton will, in its natural 
state, contain about 7 to 8 x^er cent of moisture, but tests 
often reveal the fact that there is even more than this, 
and we must come to the conclusion that at times water is 
deliberately added in a dishonest manner. The moisture 
testing oven soon shows up this matter, and, of course, a claim 
can be made against any excess. 

Nep 

This may be either natural or artificial, and consists of little 
white balls of knotted cotton fibres about the size of a pin 
head. It is one of the most troublesome things we have to 
deal with in the mill, as these white specks are very difficult to 
remove from the cotton. Naturally, they are formed by the 
dead and unripe fibres curling round the good fibres, but 
probably an equal amount is caused by the early machinery 
through which the cotton passes. Careless ginning and bad 
setting of the opener, scutcher, and card are causes of nepped 
cotton, and the American saw gin, by its rough action upon 
the fibres, causes a great deal of '" nep." 

Over-beating or too close bar-and-beater setting on scutchers, 
or careless setting on the card, will also cause much nepped 
cotton. 

Broken Fibres 

These can be attributed pretty well m toto to the ginning 
process, and again the saw gin is the worst culprit. That is one 
reason why it is never used for the better class cottons. 

Unripe and Dead Fibres 

Certain proportions of these are bound to appear in any 
cotton, and they are of no practical value for the following 
reasons : (1) They have no natural twist ; (2) They are thin 
and ribbon-like instead of being hollow and round ; (3) They 
will not take dye well and are very bad for bleaching purposes. 

2— (5093) 



» FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

Stained Fibres 

These also are a great nuisance in the mill and are caused 
by : (1) Crushed seeds ; (2) Rusty bale bands ; (3) Damp ; 
(4) Mud, etc., due to careless transportation and imperfect 
coverings (especially American bales). 

Motes 

Hard matted clusters of cotton fibres, probably due to damp, 
or oil from crushed seeds. Usually taken out in the scutching 
and carding processes. 

GENERAL NOTES ON COTTON, ETC. 

1. Generally speaking, the names of cottons are obtained 
from the place of growth or shipment, although there are 
exceptions, such as Sakellaridis, which obtains its name from 
the name of the discoverer of the seed. 

2. It is usual to replant fresh seeds each year and so get 
annual crops, but certain types of tree cotton are exceptions 
to this rule and will give fruit up to five or six years. 

3. The usual height of cotton plants is from 3 to 6 ft. ; tree 
cotton, however, will grow up to 15 to 20 ft. high. 

4. The seeds are usually planted in drills about 5 ft. apart, 
leaving an ample passage for attention. 

5. Lint is the name given to cotton after it has beeii ginned, i.e. 
lint is cotton without seed. Egypt gives most lint per acre, about 
300 lb., against America 200 lb., and about 160 lb. for India. 

6. Cotton is the most popular and most used textile fibre 
for the following reasons : {a) Its natural colour and physical 
features are suitable for yarns and cloths ; (6) Its length is 
very convenient for mechanical treatment ; (c) It requires 
less treatment after picking before being ready for the mill 
than any other fibre ; {d) It is cheaply and easily converted' 
into yarn and cloth, especially in the ordinary qualities. 

It is, of course, the shortest textile fibre. 

7. The other leading textile fibres are wool, silk, jute, and 
flax, the finest goods being made from silk, the warmest from 
wool, the coarsest, such as bagging, from jute, and the strongest, 
such as domestic thread, from flax and linen. Others of smaller 
importance are rami or China grass, hemp, asbestos, and lastly, 
one which is gaining rapidly in importance, artificial silk. 

China grass, flax, hemp, and jute are very strong, silk and 



THE COTTON PLANT 9 

wool are strong, cotton is only moderately so, and asbestos is 
weak. 

Silk and wool are very elastic, cotton is only moderately so, 
and the others are inelastic. Silk is exceedingly smooth, wool 
and cotton moderately so ; flax, China grass, jute, and hemp in 
the raw state may be classed as rough in comparison, but when 
cleaned of all impurities the resultant thread becomes smooth. 

Asbestos has a greasy smoothness, but its use for yarns and 
fabrics is limited by its coarseness and weakness. The strength 
of the combined fibres of silk, wool, and cotton make them 
easy to weave both in warp and weft, but the other fibres, 
owing to their stiffness and inelastic nature are much more 
difficult to manipulate, especially as a warp yarn. 

8. The following are the five methods usually adopted for 
distinguishing the presence of different textile fibres. 

(a) General observation. 

(b) Microscopic examination. 

(c) Chemical tests. 

(d) Dyeing tests. 

(e) Burning tests. 

Example. To distinguish wool and silk from cotton and 
flax : picric acid will dye wool and silk almost a fast yellow, 
and will have no effect on cotton or flax. 

THE WORLD'S COTTON GROWING AREAS 

Owing to the great strides which have been made during 
the past few years in the encouragement of cotton growing in 
many parts of the British Empire, it is really very difficult 
to enumerate all the world's present and possible cotton 
growing areas, and the following list must not by any means 
be considered as exhaustive or final, but must be taken more 
as a general guide. 

The vast bulk of the cotton grown, however, is produced 
in three countries only, namely, U.S.A., India, and Egypt, 
in proportions somewhat as follows^ — 

U.S. A 60 per cent 

India . . . . 15 ,, 

Egypt . . . 5 „ 

Other coiintries . . .20 ,, 



100 per cent 



10 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

A few years ago the percentages were as follows — 

U.S.A. 

India 

Egypt 

Other countries . 



70 


per 


cent 


17 




J, 


7 




jj 


6 




" 


100 


per 


cent 



and as most of the places included in '' other countries '' are 
British colonies, it will at once be seen that great headway has 
been made, thanks in no small degree to the Empire Cotton 
Growing Corporation, although the question of finance has 
been, up to now at any rate, a harassing feature. 

The following is a list of the more important cotton growing 
countries : United States of America, India, Egypt (including 
Sudan), Africa (East and West), South America (Brazil and 
Peru), the Bahama Islands, China, and Russia. 

Places of less importance but which are undoubtedly 
increasing their production are : Uganda, Syria, Japan, 
Rhodesia, West Indies, Smyrna, Cyprus, Turkestan, Mexico, 
Queensland, etc. 

The following was the 1914 cotton crop — 

U.S.A 14,610,000 bales 

India 5,987,000 „ 

Egypt 966,000 „ 

Other countries . . . 7,737,000 „ 



Total . . . 29,300,000 bales 



The 1926 American cotton crop was 17,900,000 bales, which 
is a record. 

Below is a list of the world's principal raw cotton ports. 



England 
France 


Liverpool and Manchester 
Le Havre 


Belgium 

Germany 

Holland 


Antwerp 

Bremen 

Amsterdam 


Egypt . 
India . 
China . 


Alexandria 

Bombay 

Shanghai 


U.S.A. 


New York, Orleans, Hoviston, 




Galveston, Charlestown 



CHAPTER II 

The Special Features of Various Kinds of Cotton 

1. Sea Islands 

This cotton derives its name from the fact that it originates 
from the Bahama Islands, and it is of the Gossypium Barba- 
dense t^^pe (native of Barbados). Nowadays, however, we find 
many classes of Sea Islands cotton as the seeds have been 
planted in other districts, but none of these classes, although 
good, are as good as the real Sea Islands cotton, which is 
easily the best cotton grow^n in the world. When compared 
with other cottons for amount grown it probably goes to the 
bottom, as there are only about 30,000 to 40,000 bales produced 
annually, which is, of course, a very minute portion of the 
world's total supplies. 

The reasons for the superiority of Sea Islands cotton over 
all other growths are as follows — 

1. The climatic and atmospheric conditions of the places 
of growth are such as to ensure the best possible results (i e. 
warm and moist). 

2. These conditions are helped to a very considerable extent 
by fertilizers, and if found necessary, the most skilful 
irrigation is added. 

3. The soil is light and loamy and contains the best natural 
ingredients for good growth. 

4. The seeds are picked with the greatest possible care and 
skill. 

5. During growth the utmost care is taken in weeding out 
defective plants, pruning, and picking. 

6. It is only ginned by the Macarthy gin (which is most 
gentle in its treatment of the cotton) and, generally speaking, 
it is only made up into lightly-pressed bales of from 250 to 
300 lb. weight, although the wi^iter has dealt with Sea Islands 
bales weighing 620 lb. each 

All these conditions make Sea Islands cotton absolutely 
unrivalled, no matter how it is considered, whether with 
regard to length, fineness of staple, regularity of natural twist, 
or colour. 

11 



12 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



It iiHist be understood, however, that this type of cotton is 
very expensive and troublesome to grow, is hard to gin, and 
extremely difficult to manipulate in the mill, as it contains 
a large proportion of short, unripe, and dead fibres, is very 
neppy, and, generally speaking, although there are some few 
exceptions, it will not mix with any other Idnd of cotton. 

For these reasons it is only used for the production of the 
very finest counts and highest qualities of yarns, which yarns 
are used for the making of goods which rival and imitate silk, 
such as fine muslins and the very finest lace. It is always 
combed and very often double and even treble combed, taking 
out anything up to 30 per cent of waste at the comber. 

The counts spun from Sea Islands cotton range, usually, 
from about 100s to 350s, and the writer knows of one firm 
spinning a limited quantity of 440s, and we are given to 
understand that even finer counts than these have been spun. 

In colour it is a very light cream, practically white. The 
principal growing centres for this type of cotton are : the 
Bahama Islands, the coastlines of Florida, South Carolina and 
Georgia, Peru, West Indies, Fiji Islands, and a few other 
places, but, as mentioned previously, all the latter are inferior 
to the first named. 

The leading cotton market for Sea Islands cotton is Charles- 
town, and it has been found that Edisto Island gives the very 
best cotton. 

The staple has been found occasionally to reach 2-25 in., 
but the average length is about 1-8 in., and the average 
diameter about ytigu ^^- 



Name of Cotton 


Where Grown 


Length 


Diam. 


Sea Islands (Proper) 


Edisto, John, James, 
Port Royal, St. 
Simon, etc. 


1-6 in. to 2-25 in. 
Av. 1-8 in. 


j-hji 


Florida S.I. 


Coast of Florida, S. 
Carolina, Georgia 


1-25 in. to 1-75 in. 


-J,r, 


Peruvian S.I. . 


Peru from S.I. seed . 


1-5 in. 


T^ 


Fiji S.I. 


Fiji Islands 


1-6 in. to 2 in. 


T^V.T 



SPECIAL FEATURES OF VARIOUS COTTONS 13 

2. Egyptian Cotton 

Following Sea Islands in quality and much exceeding it in 
quantity is Egyptian cotton, which has an annual crop of 
round about 1,000,000 bales, of an average weight of some 
725 lb. each. 

The success of the quality of Egyptian cotton is due prac- 
tically entirely to the fact that the cotton-fields are situated 
on or near the banks of the river Nile, which rises each year to 
such an extent that it overflows its banks, for many miles in 
places, and when it recedes it leaves a muddy, loamy soil, 
which has proved by experience to be the finest possible 
material for the growth of the cotton plant. 

This deposit is, of course, carried down by the river from its 
source, and, seeing that the rainfall in Egypt is very small, 
artificial irrigation has to be resorted to, with the result that 
dams, canals, large concrete tanks, etc., have been erected 
to hold the overflow waters when the river recedes, in 
order to ensure an ample water supply for the plants during 
growth. 

In colour, Egyptian cotton varies from a light cream to a 
distinctly golden tint (known as Brown Egyptian), and in one 
case, that of Abassi, it is practically white. The length of 
staple varies from about If in. in the best Sakellaridis, to 
about 1 J in. in the poorest Uppers, whilst the average diameter 
is something like ^tW i^i- 

Until recently it was not the general practice to mix 
Egyptian cottons, mth the exception of a small quantity of the 
best being blended with the poorer Sea Islands, but since the 
Sudan cotton-fields were opened up quite a fair amount of 
Sudan is mixed with good quality Sakellaridis, in fact many of 
these Sudan growths are from Sakellaridis seeds. 

Egyptian cottons are suitable for the spinning of both 
twists and wefts, and the counts vary according to mill 
conditions, but the best Sakellaridis combed cotton (16 per 
cent waste) will spin a very good 150s weft. So good are the 
spun results that the best sewing threads, shirtings, etc., are 
manufactured from these cottons. 

Abassi (i.e. White Egyptian) is another variety which will 
blend successfully with the best types of American cotton 
(such as Benders and Peelers). 



14 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



Practically the whole of the Egyptian crop is ginned by the 
Macarthy gin, and the chief port of exportation is Alexandria. 
Egyptian bale particulars are as follows — 



Total weight (average) 
Density 
Tare . 
Measurement 
Bands . 



750 lb. 

36 to 38 lb. per cub. ft. 

221b. 

50 X 30 X 20 in. 



The present-day varieties in order of quality are as follows- 



Name 


Date 


Where Grown 


Length 


Diam. 


Colour 


Remarks 








inches 








Sakellaridis . 


1906 


Lower Egypt, 


If tol§ 


J 


Very light 


Large amount 






i.e. Delta 


1530 


cream 


grown 


Abassi . . 


1893 


Lower Egypt 


U 


i!5^5(5 


Wliite 




Nubari . 


190.5 ) 
1906 5 


Very little 










Assili . 


grown 










Zagora . 


1921) 


Upper Middle 








60 per cent 


Ashmouni 


1860 y * 


and 


1^ to n 


14 80 


Deep golden 


of Egyptian 


Mit Afifl 


1882 


Lower Egypt 








crop 



Known as the Bro^^^l varieties. 



3. Sudan Cotton (British Empire) 

Another cotton growing area which must be linked with 
Egypt, and which is becoming one of the important fields 
is the Sudan, Avhere the Empire Cotton Growing Corporation 
are doing such great work. 

A good quality of cotton is being produced, particularly with 
the imported Sakel seed, and we can look forward to still 
further improvement in the near future. Sudan bales arriving 
in this country at the present time are averaging about 430 lb. 
weight each. 

It is estimated that in the course of the next 10 to 15 
years the production of cotton in the Sudan will have increased 
to 1 ,000,000 bales per annum of cotton as good as that produced 
in Egypt. 

The chief place of cultivation is in the area between the 
White and Blue Niles (i.e. Gezira Plain), although there are 
also other areas under cultivation. 

The three chief types grown in the Sudan are Sakel, 
Ashmouni, and Uplands American in approximately the 



SPECIAL FEATURES OF VARIOUS COTTONS 



15 



following percentages : 45, 45 and 10, and the present crop is 
about 100,000 bales per annum. 

4. South American Cottons 

These include chiefly Brazilian and Peruvian growths, but 
other minor cotton-fields in South America are Argentine, 
Chile, Colombia, Dutch W. Indies, Surinam, Ecuador, 
Guatemala, Hayti, San Domingo, Mexico, Nicaragua, Para- 
guay, Porto Rico, San Salvador, Uruguay, and Venezuela ; 
and serious endeavours are now being made to improve the 
productions of these countries, both in quantity and quality. 

Up to the present the qualities produced in these minor 
cotton -fields does not exceed, generally speaking, that of 
U.S.A. cottons. 

Brazil, however, produces a vast quantity, something like 
1,000,000 bales of 500 lb. each per annum, and succeeds in 
keeping a quite good quality. The country being entirely 
tropical or sub-tropical, is eminently suited for the growing of 
cotton, and with care and skill there is no reason why the 
quality should not improve. 

Methods of cultivation, etc., are, however, very primitive, 
and the saw gin is practically universal throughout the country. 

Baling also is not attended to as it ought to be, and very 
little encouragement is given to careful picking with the result 
that there is a tremendous amount of dirty and stained cotton. 

Brazilian cotton is harsh and wirey, a dull white in colour, 
and fairly strong, and is used for both twist and weft yarns 
up to 70s or so, being often mixed with U.S.A. cottons. 

The following are some of the chief types of Brazilian 



Name 


i 
Length ' Diameter 

1 


Pernam 

Maranham 

Paraiba 

Ceara 

Maceio 

Nahia 

Aracati 

Santos* 










1-3 in. 
I4 in. 
Ig in. 
li ^^- 
H in. 
U in. 
li in. 
H in. 


12^(7 



From American seed, softer than the above 



16 FIEST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

cotton, and it will be noticed that most of them receive their 
name from the district in which they are growTi. 

Peruvian cotton is of three chief types, and is grown 
principally on the coasts. 

They are as follows : (1) Rough Peruvian ; (2) Smooth 
Peruvian ; (3) Tanguis Peruvian, and, of course, some cotton is 
grown from Sea Islands seed as has been previously mentioned. 
They have an average staple of IJ in., with a diameter of 
Yg\,y7in., and like Brazilian will spin up to about 70s, but 
whereas rough Peruvian is harsh and crinkly and used in 
large quantities for mixing with wool, smooth Peruvian is 
much softer and smoother, and suitable for cotton yarn 
spinning. 

Tanguis is supposed to be a mixture between smooth and 
rough, and it is now said to constitute the major portion of 
the crop. 

A little cotton from Egyptian seed is also grown in Peru. 
There is also a Red Peruvian cotton, but it is not grown in 
large quantities on account of its colour not being adaptable 
for bleaching, dyeing, etc. 

5. U.S.A. Cottons 

As has been previously mentioned, the great preponderance 
of the world's cotton crop is grown in U.S.A., and as the cotton 
grown is suitable for making up into goods for domestic pur- 
poses, such as towels, etc., there is a very large demand for it. 

The 1926 crop, which was a record, was about 18,000,000 
bales of 5001b. 

The following are the thirteen principal states in which 
cotton is growTi in large quantities : North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, Georgia, Texas, Florida, 
Arkansas, Alabama, Tennessee, Virginia, Oklahoma, and 
Missouri. These cottons are mostly of the Hirsutum type and 
are of two principal classes, viz., short- and long-staple 
Upland, these types being split up in their turn into msmy 
other varieties. 

It must be remembered, of course, that Sea Islands cotton 
is also grown on the coast lines of North and South Carolina, 
Florida, and Georgia. 

Short-staple Uplands cotton (in which are included Orleans 
or Gulf cotton, Texas, etc.) comprises about 90 per cent of the 




17 



18 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



American cotton croj), and is suitable for the spinning of any 
counts up to about 50s, having an average staple of about 1 in. 

Long-staple Uplands (in which are included such special 
cottons as Benders, Peelers, and Allan-Seed) will spin up to 
about 100s, average staple If in. 

American cotton mil pass through the mill easily and 
cheaply, and is, compared with Egyptian cotton, not often 
combed, although a large trade of semi-combed American 
Yarns has sprung up these last few years. 

American bale particulars are as follows — 

Density, 15 to 30 lb. per cub. ft. 

Weight, 500 lb. 

Badly covered and banded. 

Cylindrical bales are 35 in. long by 22 in. diameter, weigh 
about 250 lb., and have a density of about 35 lb. per cub. ft. 

American cottons are mostly white in colour. 



Name 



Length Diameter 



Remarks 



Long-staple Uplands 


if in. to 


T-ho 


Includes Benders, Peelers, 




Uin. 




Nashville, Allanseed, etc. 

Best grown, fibres strong, 

soft, light creamy colour 


Texas — 








Mobile 






00 per cent of American 
crop 


Ordinary Uplands 


]m. 


T:JTU 


Dull white colour 



6. Indian Cottons 

In point of quantity these cottons rank second only to 
U.S.A., as the production is about 5,500,000 bales of 400 lb. 
each per year, and it is hoped that this will be increased to 
6,000,000 bales in the next few years. In quality Indian cotton 
is the worst which is grown to any extent, over 75 per cent of 
the crop having a staple which does not exceed | in., some being 
below J in., and a few of the very best Indian cottons reaching 
as high as 1;| in. 

It is hoped that by the introduction of more up-to-date 
irrigation methods, more careful attention of plants, and more 
skilful picking, to improve the quality to such an extent that 



SPECIAL FEATURES OF VARIOUS COTTONS 



19 



there will be about 2,000,000 bales of cotton having a staple of 
ly\ in. to I J in. Ginning is done mostly by roller gins. 

Below will be found the particulars of the chief types of 
Indian cotton grown at the present time. 



Name 


Length 


Diameter 


Remarks 


Hingunghat 
Broach . 
Oomras . 
Dhollera 

Tinnevelly 
Dharwar 
Madras . 
Comptah 
Bengal . 
Scinde 


lA in. 
1 in. 
1 in. 
1 in. 

1 in. 
i in. 
1 in. 
1 in. 
1 in. 
f in. 


T2(J(7 


Best, light golden 
Deep colour, clean 
Dirty, but strong 
Dirty but strong, dull 

white 
Dull cream, mod. clean 
Cream, irregular 
Dirty, mod. strong 
Dirty and weak 
Strong, harsh, dirty 
Dull white, weak 



Counts from 30s downwards. 

Fifty per cent of the Indian cotton crop is used by the 
Indian mills themselves, and Japan is her best raw cotton 
customer, taking close on 2,000,000 bales per annum. 

7. China Cottons 

Although authentic statistics are diificult to obtain, it is 
believed that the output of raw cotton per annum in China is 
about 2,000,000 bales of 500 lb. each. 

The staple is very short, somewhere about f in. ; its natural 
colour is khaki, and in ma.ny instances it is not suitable for 
the spinning of yarns, but is used for mixing with wool, etc. 

Methods of cultivation, etc., are very primitive, so much so, 
that even to-day, a considerable amount of the crojD is ginned 
by hand, although recently a number of Japanese roller gins 
have been introduced. 

8. Minor Cotton Fields in Europe 

{a) Russia. The two principal cotton growing areas are 
Turkestan and Transcaucasia, and a cotton very like Indian 
with a staple of about | in. is produced, although in some parts, 
where American cotton seed has been kept pure, a staple of 
14 in. is obtained. 



20 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

Although the production has been 1,000,000 bales, at 
present it is about 200,000 bales of 500 lb. each. 

(6) Bulgaria. This country grows a few thousand bales per 
annum at her southern end, of the following three types — 

Kaskova, j% in. to {^ in. staple. 
Turkestan, f in. to 1 in. staple. 
Upland- American, f in. to \f^^ in staple. 

(c) Greece. Its production is about 9,000 to 10,000 bales per 
annum, all of which is needed for home consumjotion. Attempts 
to grow Egyptian cotton here have failed. 

{d) Italy. Southern Italy and Sicily produce about 5,000 
bales per annum of Upland- American, Biancavilla, and 
Terranova cottons, which have a staple of about 1 in. 

(e) Spain. It is said that there are about 2,000,000 acres 
of land in Southern Spain (the Seville district), suitable for the 
growing of cotton equal in quality to American. 

9. Minor Cotton Fields in Asia 

The following are the cotton-fields — 

Afghanistan, Dutch East Indies (staple | in.), Indo -China, 
Japan (4,500 bales), Korea, Philippines, Siam, Turkey, 
Smyrna. 

10. Africa 

Fields are Belgian Congo (20,000 bales — IJin. staple); 
French colonies, including Algeria, French West Africa 
(Senegal, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Togo, and Dahomey), French 
Sudan, Madagascar ; Italian colonies (Eritrea, Somaliland) ; 
Portuguese colonies (Angola, Mozambique, Inhambane). Togo 
produces | in. staple Hirsutum cotton and some Togo Sea 
Island with a staple of lyV ^^- to 1 J in. 

11. British Empire Growths 

(a) Uganda. Has the second highest production in the 
Empire, about 250,000 bales per annum of cotton which has a 
staple of 1 in. to IfV i^- 5 ^^^ ^^^^ being fine, silky, strong, and 
regular. Both roller and saw gins are used. 

Crop will probably increase to 500,000 bales in next few 
years. 



SPECIAL FEATURES OE VARlUUS COTTONS 21 

(6) Tanganyika. About 20,000 bales per annum. 

(c) Nyasaland. About 10,000 bales per annum. 

{d) Kenya. Produces about 2,000 bales per annum of lint 
having a staple of 1 in. to 1 ^^ in., and it is irregular, rather 
weak, but of good colour and picked fairly clean. 

(e) South Africa. This country has very great possibilities 
for cotton growing, its present output being about 25,000 bales 
of 500 lb. each per annum. 

(/) Rhodesia. Produces about 25,000 bales of cotton of 1 in. 
to 1| in. staple (Bancroft cotton). 

(g) West Africa. Seventy per cent of the crop is consumed 
locally. Owing to the climate it is by means of irrigation that 
this crop will be increased and improved. 

(h) Nigeria. One of the most promising fields in the Empire. 
Present crop about 25,000 bales of 400 lb. each per annum. 

(^) Gold Coast and Togoland, Sierra Leone and Gambia. Not 
a lot produced yet, but there is every possibility of 
developments. 

{j) British West hidies. The group of islands are Jamaica, 
St. Lucia, Bahamas, St. Vincent, Barbados, Grenada, 
Trinidad, Tobago, and the Leeward Islands. 

As mentioned previously, the best Sea Islands cotton is 
grown in these islands. 

(k) British Guiana. Very little gro^vn. 

(I) Iraq, Mesopotamia. Produces about 3,000 bales equal 
in quality to American " Middling." 

(m) Cyprus, Malta, Ceylon, Malaya. Produce about 2,500, 
500, 100, 100 bales per annum respectivel3^ 

(n) Fiji. Grows Sea Islands cotton, but only small 
quantities. 

(o) Australia. There are great prospects of this becoming a 
very large cotton growing country. It produces at present 
about 12,000 bales of cotton of about 1 in. to 1 J in. staple. 

FURTHER COTTON NOTES 

1. The period from the date of planting to the commence- 
ment of the harvest in various countries is as follows — 

India ...... 107 days 

U.S.A 122 „ 

Egypt 185 „ 

West Indies (S.I. cotton) . . . 200 



22 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



2. Lengths of lint are roughly as follows — 



3. 



Indian and Chinese 


1 in. to 1 in. 


Asia Minor ..... 


f in. to l^ in. 


Brazilian ..... 


f in. to 1^ in. 


Russian ..... 


1 in. to l^ in. 


West African and American Upland 


1 in. to l^ in. 


East African .... 


1 in. to IJ in. 


Peruvian ..... 


1 in. to 1| in. 


Long-staple American Upland 


n in. 


Egyptian ..... 


1| in. to If in. 


Florida and Georgia Sea Island 


1|^ in. to If in. 


Carolina and West Indian Sea Islands 


2 in. and over 


ameters are — 




Sea Islands .... 


. -00064 


Upland ..... 


. -00077 


Rough Peruvian 


. -00078 


Brazilian .... 


. -0008 


Indian ..... 


. -00084 



Some details of this chapter are from Cotton and its 
Production (Johnson) . 



CHAPTER III 
Cotton Ginning and Baling 

The first mechanical process to which the cotton is subjected 
is that of ginning. 

As has previously been stated cotton is picked by hand, it 
being quite impossible to pick the cotton without the seed, 
and it is left to the fairly brutal process of ginning to effect this 
separation of fibres from seeds. 

Before the introduction of automatic machinery cotton was 
very largely ginned by hand, although long ago in India some 
attempt at machinery was made by using the Churka gin, 
which was simply a pair of wooden rollers worked on the mangle 
principle. Other primitive gins were the foot roller gin and the 
bow gin. 

Speaking generally, the proportion of seed to cotton fibre 
in Egyptian and American cottons is 2 to 1, while in Indian 
cotton it is as high as 3 to 1 . 

The tremendous strides made in the cotton industry, and 
hence the necessity of increased production of raw cotton, has 
made it that the old-fashioned methods of ginning were 
quite incapable of coping with the weight required, and so the 
introduction of power machinery was an essential feature in 
this development. 

Nowadays there are two chief types of gin. 

1. The saw gin. 

2. The Macarthy roller gin. 

Another gin, but one nothing like as popular as the two 
mentioned above, is the knife roller gin, which, although 
different somewhat in actual detail, is in many respects similar 
in principle to the Macarthy gin. 

A still more recent improvement in ginning is the introduc- 
tion of a cylinder seed coUo7i opener for treatment of the seed 
cotton before it is actually acted upon by the gin. 

It has been found that all seed cotton is more or less matted 
together on account of the interlacing of the fibres, and 
especially is this so in the case of American and Indian cottons. 

The seed cotton opener is so made that it disentangles and 

23 

3— (5093) 




Dohson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. 2a. Section Through Saw Gin 




Fig. 2b. Single -action Macarthy Gin 
24 



COTTON GINNING AND BALING 25 

straightens the fibres, and also helps, by the action of a fan, 
to take away some of the foreign impurities, and so considerably 
increases the production of the gin itself. 

In America, where the cotton is only roughly ginned, most 
seeds, after ginning, still have a very considerable number of 
short fibres adhering to them, and these seeds are again ginned 
by a closer set machine. 

The cotton thus produced at this second ginning process is 
Imown as linters, and is used chiefly for packing purposes, 
such as glassware, etc. 

BALING 

Any attempt to transfer the cotton lint from the country 
of growth to the country of manufacture in its natural loose 
state would be ridiculous, although it would be a very pleasing 
thing for the mills if they could receive it exactly as it is 
ginned. 

For the sake of making transport as cheap and as economical 
as possible, therefore, all cotton is very tightly com^Dressed into 
bale form before being shipped. 

Weights and sizes of bales have already been mentioned, and 
all that remains to be said is that the cotton is usually baled 
by hydraulic presses and the bands are put on while the bales 
are under pressure, so that we have a solid, compact, mass of 
cotton, held very firmly and prevented from expanding by the 
metal bands. 

All that remains now is to ship the cotton, and it is in this 
bale form that we receive it in our mills in Lancashire. It is 
from this point that the real process of manufacture commences. 

Cotton Bales 

Cotton bales from U.S.A. present a ragged and untidy 
appearance on reaching the mills for the following reasons : 

(1) they are badly covered in the beginning at the joress ; 

(2) cotton samj^lers treat the cotton far too roughly ; (3) the 
coverings are damaged through forcing the bales too tightly in 
and out of the ship ; (4) bands are often broken by crane 
hooks. 

Other faults common in U.S.A. bales are : (1) sometimes 
lumps of sand are put in the bales wilfully at the press ; (2) 
water is added. 



26 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

Very damp cotton is subject to forming into hard cakes or 
" bump " cotton. 

Occasionally bales are damaged in transit to the mill, 
becoming dirty and wet on the outside, due to bad covering 
or dirty transport wagons or being left standing on dirty 
ground. The term " country damage " is applied to such 
cases. Partly due to this bad baling various forms of round 
bales have been introduced, but have not made great progress. 

American cotton bales are much more subject to damage by 
fire than the harder pressed bales from the East, such as India 
and Egypt. 

Egyptian bales are the best packed which come into this 
country. 



CHAPTER IVa 

Cotton Spinning Machinery 

The process order of the machinery in a modern cotton 
spinning mill is as follows — 

1. The bale breaker and mixings. 

2. The hopper feeder. 

3. Opening and scutching machinery. 

4. The carding engine. 

5. The sliver lap machine. 

6. The ribbon lap machine. 

7. The comber. 

8. The drawframe (three heads). 

9. Bobbin and flyframes (slubber, intermediate, and roving 
frame). 

10. The mule or ring spinning frame. 

N.B. {a) In the case of carded yarns 5, 6, and 7 are omitted, 
the carded sliver passing directly to the drawframe. 

(6) When producing the coarser yarns sometimes only two 
bobbin and flyframes are used instead of the usual three. 

(c) For the specially fine counts we sometimes find an extra 
flyframe introduced (i.e. a fourth) knowTi as the fine jackframe. 

The Series of Operations in Cotton Spinning 
(Functions Performed by each Machine Marked x) 









Operations 








Machines 


O 


a 
'a 


to 

a 

1 




Producing 

Paralleliza- 

t ion of 

Fibres 






Bale breaker 
Opener 
Scutcher 
Card . 
Comber 
Draw frame . 
Flyer frames 
Ring frame . 
Mule . 


X 
X 
X 
X 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 


X 
X 
X 

X 
X 


X 
X 
X 


X 
X 
X 



27 



28 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 




{Piatt Bros.) 
Fig. 3. Hopper Bale Breaker or Improved Cotton 
Pulling Machine 




29 



.*f# 





31 




32 




33 




34 



H 



COTTON SPINNING MACHINERY 



35 




(Piatt Bros.) 



Fig. 10. Intermediate or Roving Frame 




36 




hi 
o 

H 



37 



CHAPTER IVb 
Bale Breakers or Cotton Pullers 

On arrival at the mill the bales of cotton are weighed, etc., 
and then put in the bale stores until such time as they are 
needed for use. 

It will be seen at once that cotton in the hard, matted, 
compressed state in which it appears in bale form, is quite 
useless for the spinning of yarns, and the first thing that the 
spinner must do is to make some serious attempt to get the 
cotton back into that soft state which it was in after ginning ; 
because it must essentially be open and loose to make it 
possible to relieve it of the many impurities it contains. 

The first mechanical treatment to which the cotton is 
submitted in the mill, then, is that of passing it through the 
bale breaker, or as it is sometimes called, the cotton puller. 

For many years this operation was done by hand, but later 
the roller bale breaker was introduced, being a machine con- 
sisting chiefly of four pairs of spiked and fluted rollers, heavily 
weighted, usually by strong springs, and each succeeding pair 
of rollers is made to revolve at a considerably greater speed 
than the preceding pair. 

The result was that when the hard pieces of cotton from the 
bales were fed to this machine they were pulled asunder by the 
" draft " in the rollers. 

The great danger of this machine was the tremendous risk of 
fire, as these spiked rollers coming up against any metal 
substance such as pieces of bale iron, studs, etc., were practically 
certain to cause sparks. 

About 1901 the roller bale breaker was superseded by the 
hopper bale breaker, and the advantages of this machine are 
so obvious that it is now used practically universally. 

The Hopper Bale Breaker 

The use of the automatic hopper feeder having proved so 
successful, the hopper bale breaker was soon afterwards intro- 
duced, and it is a modification of the feeder. 

The great popular features of the machine are — 

38 



BALE BREAKERS OR COTTON PULLERS 39 

1. The gentleness, no less effective, with which it treats the 
cotton. 

2. The combing effect on the cotton rather than a plucking 
effect. 

3. Its general freedom from fire risks, there being no heavy 
rollers in the machine. 

4. Its cleanliness owing to the introduction of the fan. 

5. Its considerably greater opening and cleaning power. 

6. Its increased production, one machine will comfortably 
fulfil the requirements of a mill spinning 40,000-50,000 lb. of 
yarn per week. 

7. Its simplicity ; beyond the ordinary oiling and cleaning 
it requires practically no attention at all, being very seldom 
out of order. 

8. Its great assistance in simplifying the work of the opener 
and scutcher. 

Action of the Machine 

Before explaining the action of the machine the question of 
mixing must be mentioned, the commercial and other reasons 
of which will be explained later. 

It is usually at the bale breaker that the first attempt to 
blend the cotton is made, and to do it most effectively the 
following system must be adopted : first lay out the bales to 
be mixed as near to the feed lattice as possible, take off the 
bands, which may be done either by an axe or by cutters, 
preferably the latter to avoid sparks and fire risks, and then 
take off the tare, and tear off large pieces of cotton from each 
bale in turn roughly according to the proportion to be used, 
placing them on the feed lattice. By the time the cotton has 
passed through the machine and been deposited in the mixing 
bin, it will be fairly well blended if the above system is adopted. 

Fig. 13 shows a sectional view of the hopper bale breaker, 
and the hopper A receives the cotton from either the feed 
lattice or by having it thrown straight in by hand. The bottom 
lattice B carries the large pieces of cotton to the spiked lifting 
lattice C, which is of very strong construction, and this lattice 
now lifts it up until it comes into contact with the spiked 
evener roller D travelling at a high speed in the opposite 
direction. Owing to the very close setting between the spikes 
of the lifting apron and the evener roller, it is quite impossible 

4— (5093) 




40 



BALE BREAKERS OR COTTON PULLERS 



41 



for any large pieces to pass forward, and so they are thrown 
back into the hopper. It will be seen that it is here that the 
combing and tumbling action takes place. The evener roller 
gets its spikes cleaned by the evener stripping roller E, in order 
to prevent the cotton stringing. 

When the cotton is in sufficiently small pieces and soft 
enough the spiked lattice carries it forward and the stripping 
roller F knocks it off the spikes on to the grid bars Q, after 
which it falls on to the delivery lattice H which takes it to the 




Leather 



Steel Spikes 



Hard Wood 
Lags 




A=Lath. 

B = Canvas. 

C = Thin Metal 
OP Wood. 

D=LeathepBelt. 



Fig. 14. Spiked Lifting 
Lattice 



Fig. 15. Spiked Lifting 
Lattice 



next machine, or, as is also done, it falls off the grid Q on to the 
lattices which take it to the mixing bins. 

The fan M collects all the dust which would otherwise pass 
into the room, and by means of tin trunks sends it to the dust 
chamber. Sometimes this fan is coupled up to both the feed 
and the delivery of the machine. A suitable grid is also placed 
under the lifting lattice as shown, and dust boxes catch foreign 
matter and droppings. 

Constructional Notes 

1. The machine is made from 36 in. to 48 in. wide, the former 
being very popular. 



42 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

2. From 1 J to 2 J h.p. is required. 

3. Lifting aprons may be made from very strong, endless 
canvas sheets mounted on leather belts which come into 
contact with the driving bowls, the spikes being attached to 
strong strips which are in turn secured firmly to the sheet and 
the belts. Types of lifting lattices are shown in Figs. 14 and 15. 

4. Sometimes the evener roller is self -stripping, although 
this is more generally found in the hopper feeder. 

5. A responsible person should inspect and, if necessary, 
overhaul the machine at least twice a year, and all bearings, 
shafts, etc., should be well picked, cleaned, and oiled each time 
the machine is going to run. 

6. All bands and straps should be kept in good condition 
as the drive is naturally a fairly heavy one. 

Speeds, etc. 

1. The stripping roller is the chief driving part, and the fast 
and loose pulleys or motor are attached to this shaft. 

2. Good running speeds are as follows : spiked lifting lattice 
200 ft. per min. ; evener roller 120 r.p.m. ; evener stripping 
roller 300 r.p.m. ; stripping roller 350 r.p.m. ; fan 1,000 r.p.m. 
These speeds, however, will vary with circumstances such as 
type of cotton being opened, amount of treatment necessary, 
distance fan has to send dust, etc. 

3. The length of time required to open one bale will vary 
according to the setting of evener roller to lifting lattice, and 
the speeds of the various parts, but worldng under equal 
mechanical conditions it will take longer to open an American 
bale of 500 lb. than an Egyptian bale of 750 lb. on account of 
the fact that the American cotton is much softer in itself, and 
hence has a greater tendency to cling to the spikes, etc. Under 
ordinary circumstances we might expect about 8 min. for an 
Egyptian bale and 3 or 4 min. longer for an American. 

Adjustments 

1. The bearings of the evener roller are adjustable so that 
the spikes can be set to the required distance from the spikes 
of the lifting apron, usually from J in. to 1 in. 

2. All latices have the bearings of the lattice bowls movable 
so that the required tension can be put on the lattices, in order 
to allow for the stretching of the leather, etc. 



BALE BREAKERS OR COTTON PULLERS 43 

3. For the best results never overfill the hopper, three- 
quarters full is ample. 

4. Bale breakers are either coupled direct to the hopper 
feeder or else to the mixing lattices which deliver the cotton 
into the mixing bins, the former being the usual method 
adopted in the American section of the trade and the latter in 
the Egyptian section. 

5. The perforated door for the air trunk is now made 
reversible in order to give the fan more uniform conditions, and 
to relieve the machine of its dirt and dust more easily. 

6. When coupled direct to the hopper feeder a knocking-off 
motion is arranged in order to prevent the bale breaker from 
overfilling the feeder. 

7. Many people use up their soft waste (i.e. good cotton, 
which is waste owing to broken ends, etc.), and their bobbin 
waste, by mixing it with the raw cotton at the bale breaker, 
but the writer finds from experience that soft waste is better 
used at the hopper feeder, as, if used at the breaker, being very 
open it wraps round the spikes of both lifting lattice and 
evener roller, especially the latter, and is very troublesome 
indeed. 

No matter where it is used, however, it should be used 
sparingly and worked in with the cotton as evenly as possible. 

For bobbin waste it is much the best plan to have the bobbin 
waste machine coupled direct to the opener by means of a 
trunk, and to have the speed of delivery of the opened bobbin 
waste not more than 1 or 2 per cent of the total cotton 
passing to the opener, as too much bobbin waste tends to 
cause stringy laps, which is an evil for the carding process to 
overcome. 

SPEED CALCULATIONS 

When a pulley on a shaft drives, through the medium of a 
strap, another pulley on a driven shaft, the surface speed of the 
strap remains constant so long as the driving pulley is not 
altered, and independent of how much the driven pulley is 
altered. 

This being so, it will be seen that the revolutions of the 
driven pulley will alter in direct proportion to the circumfer- 
ence of the pulley, in order to maintain the same surface speed. 

If a pulley 10 in. diameter making 100 r.p.m. drives a 



44 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

pulley of 5 in. diameter, the revolutions of the 5 in. diameter 
pulley will be in direct proportion to their circumferences. 

= 200 r.p.m. 

Now as TT (or approx. 3f) is common to both we can ignore 
it, and so work in direct proportion to their diameters. 

The rule, then, for speed calculations is as follows — 

To find the revolutions of any driven pulley or wheel 
multiply the revolutions of the driver by all the drivers and divide 
by all the drivens. 

N.B. All pulleys taken by diameter. All wheels taken by 
the number of teeth they contain. 

Expressed as an equation it will read as follows — 

^ „ ^ . Revs, of driver X Drivers 

Kevs. 01 driven = rpr-^ 

JDrivens 

Example. Speed of flywheel is 75 r.p.m., diameter of fly- 
wheel is 25 ft., driving 8 ft. line shaft pulley. A 4 ft. drum on 
line shaft drives a 24 in. pulley on countershaft. Find the 
speed of the countershaft. 

25 4 

Speeds of countershaft = 75 X -^ x ^ 

= 468-75 r.p.m. 



CHAPTER V 

The Mixing of Cotton 

Probably the most important factor in the spinning of cotton 
yarns is the blending of the cotton to give the best results, 
and it is no exaggeration to say that cotton well mixed is half 
spun. 

It is a well-known fact that although " lots " of cotton are 
bought which come from the same areas the individual bales 
vary very considerably, and when many different " lots " are 
bought the variation is considerably greater. 

It is absolutely necessary that in the production of a certain 
yarn the following properties must remain as near as possible 
constant the whole time — (1) strength and (2) colour, as any 
change in these two properties would mean that our customer 
would very soon cancel the order. 

A judicious blending of the cotton is the only way in which 
this constancy can be obtained. 

Also when firms are spinning a definite quality week after 
week it is quite impossible to expect that it will be possible 
always to get the same mark of cotton, even assuming that the 
mark is very even in all respects, so that here again careful 
mixing will have to be resorted to. 

Again, now that our many colonies are growing cotton, but 
not in large enough quantities to guarantee a full year's supply, 
means have to be found whereby these " Empire cottons " 
can be suitably mixed with other growths. 

Any attempt to lay down a definite rule as far as mixing is 
concerned would be ridiculous, as circumstances will determine 
to a very large extent what must be done in the matter, but 
certain points must be observed such as the following — 

1. The colours of the cottons must be similar (e.g. we should 
never dream of mixing Brown Egyptian with Texas cotton). 

2. Their staple lengths must not be unlike (e.g. it would be 
silly to mix Sudan Sakel with Brazilian). 

3. A very harsh cotton will not mix successfully with a soft 
one. 

45 



46 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

At what process this mixing shall take place is also a point 
which varies to a very large extent, and according to require- 
ments might be at : (1) the bale breaker and mixing stacks ; 
(2) the finisher scutcher ; (3) the sliver lap machine ; (4) the 
drawframe ; (5) in the creels of roving frames ; (6) in the 
creels of the mule or ringframe. 

For instance, if two cottons are to be mixed together and one 
is considerably dirtier than the other and contains more short 
fibre, it would probably be more economical to pass them 
through the blowing room processes separately as the dirty 
one will require more beating, and as they would probably 
need different treatment at the comber also, it would be better 
to blend them at the drawframe or else in the creels of the 
frames or spinning machines. 

The popular way of mixing, however, is to put the cotton 
through the bale breaker in the proportion required and to pass 
it, either by mixing lattices or the pneumatic mixing arrange- 
ment, to the mixing stacks or bins, and to spread it there in 
a horizontal manner. 

When the cotton is to be used at the hopper feeder it should 
be taken from the stacks in a vertical manner so that even 
blending is assured. The advantages of mixing in this manner 
are — 

1. By letting the mixing stand for a few days it attains 
a natural worldng condition of dryness and assumes the 
temperature of the mill, that is, the fibres become pliable. 

2. The fibres tend naturally to loosen themselves in this 
condition, and are then in a better state to undergo the 
opening process. 

3. Variations are eliminated as far as it is possible to do so, 
and different classes of cotton can be mixed together quite 
successfully. 

4. Stacks are convenient for feeding from for the next 
process, i.e. the hopper feeder. 

Within reason, the larger these mixing stacks are the better. 
They should be placed so that they are as near as is reasonably 
possible to the feed lattice of the hopper feeder, and made so 
that there is no danger of the cotton from one stack getting 
mixed with that from another. 

The price of the various cottons will also have an important 
bearing on the methods of blending. 



THE MIXING OF COTTON 



47 



Money's 


Mixing Table 




f White Egyptian and J Peruvian for 


60s. to 70s. 


f „ 


, i „ 


50s. to 60s. 


i „ 


, f » 


40s. to 50s. 


f » 


, ^ American „ 


30s. to 50s. 


1 Peruvian 


, i » » 


up to 403. 


i „ 


, i ,. ,. 


„ 36s 


1 American 


, ^ Surat 


„ 30s 


1 »' 


, i » 


„ 25s 


* 


, f „ 


„ 20s 


i Surat 


, * Waste 


„ 15s 



COTTON MIXING CALCULATION 

Three types of cotton A, B, and C are to be mixed together 
in the proportion of 2 parts of A, 7 parts of B, and 3 of C. If 
A costs 14-75d. per lb., B 14d., and C 13-75d., what will be the 
price per lb. of the mixing and the cost of 20,000 lb. ? 

{N.B. These prices were the ruling " spot " prices for Sakel, 
3rd May, 1927.) 

2 lb. of A at 14-75d. = 29-50 
7 lb. of B at 14-OOd. = 98-00 

3 lb. of C at 13-75d. = 41-25 



lb. of mixing 


= 168-75 


Price per lb. 


168-75 
12 
= 14-06 pence 


Cost of 20,000 lb. 


= 14-06 X 20,000 
= £1171 13s. 4d. 



COTTON CARRIERS 

As has been previously mentioned, the cotton is carried from 
the bale breaker to either the hopper feeder or else to the 
mixing stacks, and it is the latter arrangement that I now wish 
to refer to. 

This carrying of the cotton is done in two ways by (1) mixing 
lattices, and (2) pneumatic mixing arrangements. The former 
is still more popular, but it is the writer's belief that the latter 
possess so many tremendous advantages that the day cannot 
be far distant when they will be universally adopted. 



48 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

Mixing Lattices 

This means of transferring the cotton from the bale breaker 
to the mixing stacks, has been |)opular for many years, is cheap 
to install, requires very little attention, is not cumbersome, and 
is certainly efficient. 




Fig. 



(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
16. Plan and Elevation of Mixing Lattices 



How these mixing lattices must run from the bale breaker 
depends entirely on the positions of the bale breaker and the 
stacks, e.g. if the bale breaker is in the room above the mixing 
room the cotton will fall through the floor on to the lattice, and 
then be carried to the stack required by having the lattices 
running in the correct direction, or if the bale breaker and 





o 

H 
O 
O 

O 



'A 



49 



50 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

mixings are in the same room it will be necessary to drop the 
cotton from the bale breaker on to a lattice which will give it 
to elevating lattices, and these in their turn will give it to 
overhead lattices as before, or if the mixing room is above the 
bale breaker, then the elevating lattices would pass through 
the floor. Fig. 16 shows an arrangement of lattices for six 
mixing stacks on the same floor as the bale breaker. The 
lattices are made reversible by means of a simple clutch gear 
arrangement. 

Pneumatic Conveyors 

This method of transferring the cotton to the stacks by 
means of air suction has many advantages over the ordinary 
mixing lattices, the only disadvantages being that the system 
is more costly to install, and is probably a little heavier. 

The advantages are as follows — 

1. Owing to the fact that the cotton is enclosed in trunks 
the whole distance from breaker to stack the rooms concerned 
are freed from that terrible evil dust, so that not only are the 
machines and cotton much cleaner, but the workers are 
employed under much more congenial and hygienic conditions. 

2. Owing to the action of the fan the opening process is 
going on throughout the passage of the cotton through the 
trunk. 

3. The cotton being freed of a considerable amount of dust, 
the work of the subsequent machines is made easier. 

4. A rivet or hard metal trap is fixed in the trunking as 
shown in Fig. 19, so that risk of fire is also considerably 
reduced. 

5. Within reason, the distance that the cotton has to travel 
is immaterial, as also is the position of bale breaker and mixing 
stack. 

Dobson & Barlow, Ltd., deserve every credit for being the 
pioneers of the pneumatic mixings. 

Fig. 17 shows a general view of the arrangement, the fan 
being shown, the dust outlet, of course, passing to the dust 
chamber, which will be explained later. The illustration 
of the delivery box is self explanatory, although it will be seen 
that there is a slight difference in construction between the 
intermediate and last delivery. 




61 







62 




-§ X! 
Cl o 

> 

P 

H 
H 

5 

pci 
H 
H 



63 




64 



THE MIXING OF COTTON 55 

The principle is precisely the same as the cages of oi^eners 
and scutchers, that is, the action of the fan draws the cotton 
on to the cage, but only the dust can pass through the perfora- 
tions and then the stripping roller knocks the cotton off the 
cage and into the mixing stack. Kept clean and well oiled, 
these delivery boxes will give little or no trouble. 

Distance between spikes of evener roller and spikes of 
lifting lattice when feeding to pneumatic should be about 
J in. only. 

Pneumatic cage speed = 100 r. p.m. 

Fan from 1,700 to 2,000 r.p.m., according to distance. 
J h.p. per box. 



5— (5093) 



CHAPTER VI 
Mixing and Blowing Room Machinery 

Combined Machines 

Before proceeding further, it must be explained that although 
we shall treat the mixing and blowing room machinery as 
separate units, which, of course, they are, it is usual to have 
them set up for worldng purposes in combination. 

In all up-to-date spinning plants some of these machines will 
be combined, and the number will de23end on such questions 
as the following : (1) whether there are mixing stacks or not ; 
(2) what class of cotton is to be treated (i.e. its quality, staple 
length, state of cleanliness, etc.). It will be seen quite clearly 
that the cleanliness or otherwise of the cotton will determine to 
a very large extent the number and type of beating instruments 
to be used. 

The following are typical examples of machinery used in 
mills to-day, but cannot by any means be considered as 
standard, as peoples' opinions of correct beating vary very 
considerably. 

1. Mill using Indian cotton and spinning average 20s counts. 
No mixing stacks. Hopper bale breaker, hopper feeder, 
porcupine cylinder (24 in. diameter, loiown as lattice feeder) 
fed by trunks to two Crighton vertical openers, then by further 
trunks to a double exhaust opener (i.e. having two beating 
instruments, two sets of cages and lap forming parts). Feed 
controlled automatically, and cotton not touched by hand 
from the time it is broken from the bale until it is formed into 
an opener lap. 

2. Mill using American cotton and spinning average 45s 
counts, with mixing stacks. The combination would start 
this time at the hopper feeder and would then be as above, 
except that there would probably be only one vertical 
opener. 

3. Until more or less recently the Egyptian section did not 
use vertical openers, and their combination simply comprised 
hopper feeder, lattice feeder, and opener, but it is becoming 

56 



MIXING AND BLOWING ROOM MACHINERY 57 

more popular now to have one Crighton opener in the 
series. 

4. For Sea Islands cotton a combination machine would 
be used, but having considerably less beating powers than for 
other cottons, on account of the tenderness of the fibres. 

In these combined machines feed regulating motions, which 
will be explained in detail later, are usually applied immedi- 
ately before the lattice feeder if used, and if not, then 
immediately before the first beater of the opener. 

THE HOPPER FEEDER 

Nowhere is the development of cotton spinning machinery 
more pronounced than in the case of the hopper feeder. 
Prior to the invention of this machine the cotton was spread 
on to a lattice behind the opener by hand, and in this way 
the first attempt at making an even density of cotton was 
made. 

The degree of evenness was entirely dependent on the human 
element, a frail creature indeed ; as the spreading of the cotton 
evenly on the opener feed lattice was liable to such variations 
as are easily caused by : (1) the skill or otherwise of the 
worker ; (2) the time of the day (a monotonous job of that sort 
would certainly not be done as well in the late afternoon as in 
the morning) ; (3) the state of " openness " of the cotton 
being fed. 

With the invention of the automatic hopper feeder, however, 
all this was changed, and it was very soon seen that it was a 
tremendous improvement on the hand method, with the result 
that it is now the universal way of feeding to an opener. The 
many advantages of the automatic feed are : (1) owing to the 
much more even laps produced by the blowing room machinery, 
vastly superior yarns are spun in every respect ; (2) owing to 
its combing action it aids the work of the opener, scutcher, 
and card by softening, opening, and cleaning the cotton ; 
(3) by permitting of the combination of machinery it saves 
labour. 

Action of Machine 

The hopper feeder's action is precisely the same as that of 
the bale breaker, the only difference being that the construction 




58 



MIXING AND BLOWING ROOM MACHINERY 59 

of the various parts is not as strong, and the settings, owing to 
the more open state of the cotton, are closer. 

A = Feed lattice. 
B = Full box knocking-off door. 
G ^ Spiked lifting lattice. 

D = Spiked evener lattice (this is a roller in most makes). 
E — Stripping roller. 

F = Cleaning grid (both for stripping roller and lifting lattice). 
G — Delivery lattice (i.e. feed lattice to next machine either regulating 
motion and lattice feeder or opener). 

Settings 

1. The evener lattice or evener roller spikes should be set 
at the required distance from the spikes of the lifting lattice 
to give the correct weight of lap per yard, and this setting will 
vary according to the cotton being used ; the heavier the 
cotton the closer the setting. A good setting is about f in. 

2. The laiocking off door for regulating the amount of 
cotton in the hopper should be set so that it stops the feed of 
cotton when the hopper is about threequarters full, as it has 
been found that this amount of cotton in the hopper helps to 
keep an even feed passing to the opener. 

3. The regulating motion should be set either immediately 
before the lattice feeder or the opener. 

Speeds 

The speeds of the various parts vary, but the following 
would give good results. 

1. Spiked lifting lattice about 140 ft. per min. 

2. Spiked evener roller about 120 r.p.m., or if a spiked 
evener lattice about 140 ft. per min. 

3. Stripping roller about 350 r.p.m. 

4. Fan about 1,200 to 1,400 r.p.m. 

Constructional Notes 

1. In all lattice work it is important to remember that for 
good work it is essential that the leather to which the wood 
lattice is attached, and which runs over the lattice bowls, 
should have the piecing facing in the right direction (i.e. it 
should not run so that the piecing will strike the bowl first, 
but should come away from the bowl last) . 




60 



MIXING AND BLOWING ROOM MACHINERY 61 

2. The hopper feeder is made usually 36 in. wide and takes 
about IJ h.p. to drive. 

3. A typical spiked lifting lattice has fifty-four wooden ribs, 
each rib containing thirty spikes in its 36 in. width, spikes 
exposed about 1 J in. to 1 J in. 

4. A fan is usually coupled to the hopper feeder in the same 
way as the bale breaker. 

5. The self -stripping evener roller is a development which 
does away with the need for a cleaner roller for the evener. 
It consists of a spiked roller, the spikes of which are loosely 
hinged to a central shaft, and surrounding the spikes is a 
perforated cylinder which works on bosses which are eccentric 
from the main shaft. Each spike passes through a perforation, 
and the outer cylinder is so set that when the spikes are in 
contact with the cotton they are fully out through the 
perforations, but as they pass out of action they recede and 
clean themselves automatically due to the perforated cylinder ; 
they then proceed to advance again and are ready for the 
next beat on the cotton. 

6. The erection of both bale breakers and hopper feeders 
is similar, and should present no difficulty as all is straight- 
forward going. 

THE OPENING AND SCUTCHING PROCESSES. 
The object of the machines used up to now in the manu- 
facture of cotton yarns (i.e. bale breaker and hopper feeder) has 
been to make the cotton sufficiently open to be treated 
successfully by the opening and scutching processes, and as 
the next machine to deal with the cotton will be the lattice 
feeder (24 in. cylinder opener), which is really the first of the 
opening machines, it will be as well if, before proceeding any 
further, the objects of scutching machines are clearly defined. 

Objects of Opening and Scutching 

1. To extract as much as possible of the many impurities 
which are to be found in all cottons, such as sand, seed, leaf, 
stalk, dust, motes, etc. 

2. To beat or " scutch '' the cotton into a very fleecy 
condition. 

3. To form the loose cotton into a compact and uniform 
sheet and to roll it up into a lap ready for the next process. 



62 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

In spite of the state of efficiency now obtaining in blowing room 
machinery, it must be remembered that many of these impuri- 
ties succeed in getting through openers and scutchers and 
reach the card, comber, and in some odd cases even the 
bobbins. 

There is no attempt in this process to treat the fibres 
individually, that is left for the card and comber, but a very 
serious effort is made to give the cotton its first start on the 
way to even, solid yarn, by making the lap sheet as even, 
both in density and weight per yard, as it is possible. This is 
done by the aid of regulating motions and the doubling of 
laps together, in a manner which will be explained in full later. 

The cotton is opened in the main by the action of high speed 
beaters of many types, and in all cases it is driven by these 
beaters across a series of dirt bars which permit of the 
impurities falling out by their o^mi weight. 

It is cleaned by being draA\Ti on to slow-travelling perforated 
cages by means of powerful fans, the dust passing through the 
cages and into the dust flue. 

Finally, it is made into a lap by passing through heavily 
weighted calendar rollers and lap forming parts. 

While it is admitted that a certain amount of damage is 
done to the fibres by the scutching process, the damage is not 
very great as the fibres are treated in small masses, not 
individually, and so act as a cushion for one another. 

A cotton fibre is an elongated hollow cylinder approximately 
the same diameter throughout its length, except for about the 
last twentieth farthest away from the seed, when it tapers off to 
a point. These small pointed pieces at the end break off more 
in the opening and scutching processes than anywhere else, and 
it can be well understood that the invisible loss due to this and 
other causes is very high in the blowing room, about 1 to 2 per 
cent. 

THE LATTICE FEEDER 

This machine is fed automatically from the hopper feeder, 
and provides not only a very efficient means of preliminary 
cleaning and opening, but also is the first place where a 
deliberate attempt is made to make an even.length of cotton by 
mechanical means, and thirdly, helps to pass the cotton 
through the trunks by the draught and sweeping action of the 




63 



64 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

beater in conjunction with the fan of the exhaust opener. 
The cotton is carried in this manner between lattice feeder and 
opener for, in some cases, quite long distances, and must 
essentially be getting cleaner and more open as it passes 
through the trunks. 

Action of Machine 

The cotton is fed to the machine on the feed lattice A (Fig. 
24), which is the delivery lattice of the hopper feeder), which, 
with the aid of the spiked collecting roller B, carries it to the 
feed pedal roller C, under which are the pedals PP, which in 
their turn are coupled up to the cone drums, and control the 
speed of the roller C according to requirements. The pair of 
rollers, FF, are driven at a faster rate than C, and the result 
is that the cotton is continually fed to the beater without 
any fear of " bagging." 

The beater G is of the cylinder type, and has surrounding it a 
series of dirt bars H through which the impurities pass. An 
improved feature is that the cylinder now acts upon the cotton 
for nearly threequarters of its stroke, as against only a quarter 
in the old type machines. 

The rapidly-revolving beater knocks out a good deal of sand, 
seeds, etc., which fall through the dirt bars on to the' floor 
under the machine, and the cotton then passes forward 
through the trunk TT to the next machine, whether it be 
vertical opener or exhaust opener. 

Constructional Details 

1 . Collecting cages can be applied to the machine if required. 

2. The only roller which has a variable speed is the pedal 
roller C. 

3. The knives on the cylinders are bent alternately so that 
the whole of the surface of the cotton receives the " beat." 
A typical beater contains 12 plates with the necessary making- 
up pieces, and 14 knives on each plate, making 168 knives in 
all, and is 24 in. diameter. 

Speeds 

The speed of the beater to ensure good results might be 
about 750 r.p.m., while the pedal roller making about 12 r.p.m. 





/ 






< / 


A 








f 


k 






^ 


— ^^ 




' 






65 



66 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

would ensure a weekly production of about 20,000 to 25,000 lb. 
Pedal roller 2f in. diameter. 

Settings 

The distance between knives of beater and dirt bars for 
obtaining good results on Egyptian cotton is about -^^ in. 

Exhaust Feed Trunks 

The use of this method of transferring the cotton from the 
lattice feeder to the opener is very popular indeed, and due to 
the sucldng power of the fan the cotton can be carried long 
distances in this manner, and, of course, it is clean and 
convenient to use these feed trunks on all possible occasions. 
They are usuall}^ circular tin pipes of from 9 in. to 12 in. 
diameter, and their advantages are as follows. 

They dry the cotton, open it, loosen it, and allow any heavy 
impurities to fall out and thus considerably reduce the risk 
of fire. 

The Self-cleaning Lattice 

Still further to increase the cleaning power of the exhaust 
feed trunk, many times we find fitted into the feed trunk at 
some convenient position the self-cleaning lattice, which, as 
Fig. 25 shows, travels very slowly in the opposite direction to 
the travel of the cotton. 

The air current draws the cotton through the trunk A and 
over the lattice B, so that dirt, etc., falls into the bars of the 
lattice, and is finally deposited in the boxes at the end. When 
the dirt attains a certain weight the weighted door CDE over- 
balances, and the dirt then drops either on to the floor or into 
a bag, and the door closes again. 

Very slow motion is given to the lattice 5 by a pulley, worm, 
and worm-wheel drive of simple form. 

THE CRIGHTON OR VERTICAL CONICAL OPENER 

If the above machine is used the feed trunk feeds the cotton 
to the vertical opener at the bottom as shown in Fig. 26 at 
A , and it is delivered from the beater at the top at B, passing 
into the exhaust feed trunk again, or, if necessary, on to a pair 
of cages, although the latter is seldom the case. 

This type of opener is generally to be found used for the 
treatment of Indian and American cottons, the reason being 




67 



68 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

that they are dirtier and not as good in quaUty as the other 
cottons ; although it is now used with a fair amount of fre- 
quency for Egyptian cotton also, but never for Sea Islands, 
as it is considered that owing to its construction it is rather 
brutal in its action on the fibres. 

The advantages claimed for the vertical conical beater are — 

1. It possesses more cleaning and opening power than any 
other beater, owing to the fact that there is a cleaning grid 
all round the beater from top to bottom, and the cotton stays 
in the beater longer than in other cases. 

2. Any dirtier, more matted, or heavier portions of cotton 
will not rise as quickly as light, clean portions, which makes it 
that the very cotton which requires the most beating gets it. 
An obvious disadvantage, however, is that the dirt has to 
be driven through the bars sideways, and is therefore not 
particularly helped by gravity. 

Action 

The cotton is fed to the bottom of the beater, the exhaust 
fan constantly pulling the cotton in the direction of the delivery. 

As the beater loiives act on the cotton it gradually becomes 
lighter, and so rises until it passes out of the beater chamber at 
the top. 

Construction 

The beater consists of 6 or 7 circular plates of varying diam- 
eters from about 15 in. to 30 in, with the necessary maldng-up 
pieces, and on these plates are riveted knives, alternately bent 
upwards and straight. The plates and making-up pieces are 
threaded on to and keyed to the beater shaft. The shaft has 
two bearings, one at the top of ordinary construction and one 
at the bottom known as the footstep. This footstep has the 
following special features. 

The beater shaft S (Fig. 26) revolves on a loose steel washer 
T, which can be renewed when worn, the shaft itself being 
case-hardened at the bottom. 

Surrounding the shaft is an oil bath 0, so that the beater 
shaft fork is running completely in oil, and very often round 
this again is a bath of water W, which in its turn keeps the oil 
cool. Each of these baths can be renewed or tested for height 
by the respective feed pipes. 



MIXING AND BLOWING ROOM MACHINERY 69 

Speeds 

The speed of the beater, if in connection with the feed trunk, 
would be about 700 r.p.m., or if connected to cages, etc., about 
900 to 1,000 r.p.m. 

Settings 

An ingenious arrangement is used whereby the vertical 
shaft rests on a lever which can be raised or lowered at will at 
the side of the machine, according to the distance required 
between the outer edges of the knives and the dirt bars (which 
might be about 168 in number). 

Good settings for Egyptian cotton are 1 in. space. 

Periodically the dirt bars of all blowing room machinery 
should be well cleaned and blackleaded in order to prevent 
sticking. 

Before the introduction of the special footstep this type of 
machine was very liable to fire, due to the foot of the shaft 
getting very hot, but this trouble has now been practically 
eliminated. 

EXHAUST OPENERS 

The cotton now passes by means of a trunk into the first 
beater of the exhaust opener. 

There are many types of exhaust openers in use, both single 
and double (that is with either one beater or with two beaters), 
but the one chosen for explanation is, to say the least, very 
popular. 

Before proceeding with the explanation of the action of this 
opener (which is Piatt Bros, double exhaust opener), it will be 
as well to mention something about one or two other types. 

One of the most successful earlier introductions to blowing 
rooms was the Buckley opener (made by Taylor, Lang & Co.), 
which at the time was a vast improvement on anything that 
had been previously introduced. 

It consists, like all openers and scutchers, of a beater or 
beaters, cages, and laps forming parts, but its special feature 
is its beater, which is the very large cylinder type, 41 in. diam- 
eter and having also opening spikes on its top cover. The 
advantages claimed for this opener are as follows— 

(1) It has an upstroke against all other types, striking the 



70 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

cotton downwards, and this makes it that the cotton is acted 
upon by the cylinder and dirt bars for about threequarters of 
the circumference, against about a quarter in the downstroke 
beaters (this advantage has been allowed for in many of the 
latest types of beater, as although they still strike downwards, 
the passage of the cotton is so made that it is acted upon for 
threequarters of the circumference). 

2. It is this upstroke which permits the introduction of these 
strong spikes into the top cover, which considerable helps in 
the opening and cleaning processes. 

Dobson & Barlow, Ltd., and some other makers still make 
the 41 in. cylinder, but with a downstroke instead of an 
upstroke. 

The Double Exhaust Opener 

The machine about to be explained is probably the most 
popular type of opener used at the present time, and is made by 
practically all machine makers ; the one to be explained being 
Piatt's. 

The cotton is drawn from the lattice feeder or cylinder part 
of the Crighton opener, as the case may be, down the trunk, 
and is presented to the cylinder A (Fig. 27) by the drawing 
power of the fans B, which are keyed to the cylinder shaft and 
are placed one on each side of the cylinder. This cylinder beats 
it and passes it over the dirt bars C, the fans B then drawing it 
out at the sides and passing it down the passage D to the first 
pair of cages E. These cages are either of perforated tin or else, 
as is probably best, of wire gauze, and as their interiors are 
exhausted by the fans F they act as fine sieves, and small 
particles of dust, etc., are taken out of the cotton and discharged 
by the fans through the aperture G into the dust chamber 
underneath. The cotton then passes through the cage 
delivery rollers H and second beater feed rollers /, and is 
given to the second beater J. This beater, which might be 
either two-blade, three-blade, or cylinder (18 in. diameter), 
passes the cotton over the dirt bars K and the dust box L, and 
deposits it in a level sheet on the second pair of dust cages M, 
which again are acted upon by the fan F. It now passes 
through the calendar rollers iV^, and is made into a lap at 0. 
The above explanation is equally true for intermediate and 
finishing scutchers, their action on the cotton being precisely 




s 

< 

CM 

-*; 

Q 



6— {5093) 



71 



^ ^ 




72 



MIXING AND BLOWING ROOM MACHINERY 73 

the same, the chief difference being that scutchers have their 
own regulating motion, and are fed from laps. 

THE DOUBLING OF LAPS 

The greatest ideal to attain in cotton spinning is an absolutely 
regular thread ; that is, regular per unit weight and of equal 
diameter (or thickness) throughout its length, and to do this 
it will be found that the cotton is doubled together at every 
possible process. 

It will be seen quite easily that if the opener lap, which 
obviously must have many little irregularities, were to be 
passed direct to the card an even sliver would not be produced, 
and for this reason we double four laps together at the finisher 
scutcher. If intermediate scutchers are used four are also 
doubled here, so that in that case the total number of doublings 
would be sixteen. 

The minimum, however, is 4, and the result is that any 
irregularity in any one lap is reduced to one -fourth by this 
doubling, and in practice we find that the thin places in one 
lap tend to counterbalance the thick places in some of the 
other laps, and the result is that the lap sheet fed to the 
carding engine is very even indeed. 

It follow^s, then, that this duty of intermediate and finisher 
scutchers is in itself a very important one, quite independent 
of the fact that they also continue and help to perfect the 
cleaning of the cotton. 

Cages and Fans 

The cages are used in conjunction with the fan for two 
principal reasons : (1) to form the cotton after beating into a 
sheet, which, when calendered, will not tend to stick, and 
(2) to draw from the cotton as much as possible loose dirt 
and light dust. 

Some makers advocate the two cages to be the same size, 
while others have the top cage the larger. 

It is claimed for the latter idea that the larger amount of 
cotton drawn on to the top cage tends to absorb the smaller 
amount on the bottom cage, and so reduces the tendency of 
lap licking. 

The fan exhausts the air, dust, fly, etc., from the inside of the 
cages and passes them to the dust flue. 



74 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 




(Dobson S Barlow, Ltd ) 
Fig. 29. Arrangement of Beater Bars, Cages, 
AND Fan 




(Howard & Bullough, Ltd.) 
Fig. 30. Buckley Opener Cylinder 
(41 in. diameter.) (Pedestal Cap Removed) 



MIXING AND BLOWING ROOM MACHINERY 75 

Dust Flues 

The usual method adopted nowadays is that of having 
cellars beneath the blowing room, and each machine has its 
own flue attached to the fan, in order to permit easy escape 
for the dust and air. 

Lap Licking 

This is caused by two layers of cotton sticking to one another 
when unrolling at the next process, and makes unnecessary 
waste and uneven work. It should be remedied as soon as it is 
noticed, as if allowed to go on it will be very troublesome 
indeed. 

TYPES OF BEATING INSTRUMENTS 

Figs. 30 to 36b show some of the many types of beating 
arrangements at present in use. 

Beater s^Deeds may be somewhat as follows — 
2 -BLADE Beaters 
Indian cotton ..... 1,450 r.p.m. 
American cotton .... 1,300 r.p.m. 
Egyptian cotton .... 1,050 r.p.m. 
Sea Islands cotton .... 900 r.p.m. 

Three-blade beaters will have speeds from 150 to 200 r.p.m. 
less. 

Opener beaters make from 550 to 900 r.p.m., according to 
the class of cotton being treated, the higher speeds being for 
the dirtier cotton. 

Fans in blowing room machinery make from 1,000 to 
1,500 r.p.m. 

Cylinder beaters of 18 in. diameter make something like the 
same speeds as three-blade beaters. 

WEIGHTS OF SCUTCHER LAPS 
Scutcher laps vary in weight per yard according to the 
counts being spun, and the following is simply a guide to the 
producing of good results — 

For Coarse counts (up to 40s) . . 12 oz. jDer yd. 

„ Mediimi counts (up to 90s) . . 11 oz. ,, 

,, Fine counts (above 90s) . . 9| oz. ,, 

The total weight of a scutcher lap varies from about 30 lb. 
to about 50 lb. 



13 




76 




(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. 33. Improved Toothed Beater (Kirschner) 




(Howard & Bullough, Ltd.) 
Fig. 34. 2-blade Beater 




Fig, 35. 3-blade Beater 

77 



{Piatt Bros.) 




78 




S < 

:? 
w 

o 

:? 

o 

H 

W 

o 



y 




q o 

.:, O 

§ w 

ftq S 
O 

w 



79 



-O" FOR 3 6 LAP 





81 



82 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

DRAFT CALCULATIONS 

Li conjunction with " doublings " probably the most 
important operation in cotton spinning is " drafting." 

" Drafting " means drawing out or attenuating the cotton 
fibres, usually by means of revolving rollers. For instance, if 
1 yd. of drawframe sliver passed through a slubber is drawn 
out to 6 yd. of roving, the " draft " in this case is six. 

This drawing out process is done by the surface speed of the 
front rollers exceeding that of the back rollers by, in this 
particular case, six times. It will be seen that the draft will 
be determined by the surface speed of the respective parts, 
so that we must not simply look at it from the point of view 
of the revolutions, but must also take into account the cir- 
cumferences, or more correctly (seeing that v will be common), 
the diameters of the respective parts. 

To find the draft in any machine , therefore, we must divide 
the surface speed of the delivery by the surface sj^eed of the feed. 

The above rule will determine the theoretical draft in the 
machine (i.e. the draft being actually put in according to the 
gearing), and other ways of finding the actual draft would be 
to compare the weight of the cotton per unit length at the 
feed and delivery, or actually to time the respective parts. 

Looked at from this point of view, it will be seen that a 
draft calculation simply involves two-speed calculations, and 
there is no necessity to have a special rule for drafts at all. 

In all machines having drafts there is always one wheel, 
known as the draft wheel, which is used for altering, whenever 
it is desired to increase or decrease the draft. 



CHAPTER VII 

Carding 

After scutching the cotton has been reduced to a very soft, 
fleecy condition, but it must be remembered that the scutching 
process only deals with the cotton fibres in mass, and in no 
way attempts to deal with individual fibres, so that the fibres 
in the lap which we now feed to the card are crossed and 
entangled with each other in all directions. Also, in spite of 
the present-day efficiency of machinery, quite a fair amount 
of sand, seed, husks, shell, motes, leaf, etc., still remain in the 
cotton after scutching, and, of course, no attempt has been 
made to rid the cotton of gin cut, short, dead or unripe 
fibres, nep, etc. 

From the above remarks it will be seen that the duties of 
the carding engine are very extensive, and may be summarized 
as follows — 

1. To extract the shell, sand, leaf, etc., left in the cotton by 
the blowing room machinery. 

2. To remove from the cotton nep, and a proportion of 
short, dead, unripe, or gin cut fibre, i.e. to increase the 
spinning value of the cotton, the longer fibres being the valuable 
ones as far as the spinning of good, even yarns is concerned. 

3. To loosen the fibres, separate them, etc., in order that the 
work of the drawframe, which is to make them parallel, may 
be done with perfection. 

4. To make a round strand of loose, soft cotton, kno^n as 
a sliver, from the lap sheet presented to it by the scutcher. 

The carding engine is the first machine which treats the 
cotton fibres individually. 

The Revolving Flat Carding Engine 

Although there are other types of carding engines besides 
the one about to be explained, the most popular one is 
undoubtedly the flat carding engine. 

The principal organ of the carding engine is the cylinder, 
which is usually 50 in. diameter (without wire), and it is 
driven from the line shaft at from 160 to 180 r.p.m. according 

83 



84 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

to the cotton being carded, about 165 being a good speed for 
Egyptian cotton and 175 for American. All other parts of the 
machine are driven either directly or indirectly from the 
cylinder, as a reference to the gearing plan (Fig. 43) will show. 

The scutcher lap (Fig. 39) is placed on the fluted lap roller 
P, and unwound by frictional contact with it. It passes along 
the smooth feed plate or " dish feed," as it is sometimes called, 
and under the fluted feed roller Q, of usually 2 J in. diameter, 
which presents it to the takerin K. The takerin, which is 
covered with metallic saw-tooth wire, is 9f in. diameter over 
the wire, and makes round about 400 r.p.m. As the movement 
of the lap along the feed plate is only at the rate of about 5 to 
12 in. per minute, it will be seen that there is a tremendous 
draft between feed roller and takerin, which, of course, opens 
the cotton to a very fine degree. The takerin strikes the cot- 
ton downwards and over the mote knives and undercasing L, 
and it is here that the heavier impurities are driven from the 
cotton, as the mote Iniives are set very close to the teeth of the 
takerin (y^-fro ^^- being quite common) as also is the undercasing 
(about Yj}^ in.). 

The takerin teeth are set to within about xoVo i^- ^^ ttj^o ^• 
of the wire teeth of the cylinder A, and the cylinder sweeps 
the cotton off the takerin in an upward direction. The wire 
with which the cylinder, doffer, and flats are covered, is very 
fine and contains from 450 to 700 points per sq. in., according 
to the cotton being treated. Egyptian cotton may be carded 
with 120s wire (5 X 120 = 600 points per sq. in.), while 
American may have 100s wire (5 x 100 = 500 points per 
sq. in.). 

It is these many millions of wire points which open, loosen, 
and comb out the nep and a proportion of the short, unripe, 
and dead fibres, as the wires are bent at the middle or knee to 
give them strength and flexibility. 

The cylinder A takes the fibres up to the flats B which are 
strips of metal on which are fastened the wire, and which are 
screwed to an endless chain. The flats cover practically the 
whole of the upper portion of the cylinder and move very 
slowly (about 2 J in. to 6 in. j)er min.) in the same direction as 
the cylinder, but the wire teeth are set in the opposite direction, 
which gives the necessary opening and combing effect. These 
flats are moved slowly out of action for the sole purpose of 




85 



86 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COITRSE 

making it possible to strip them by the stripping comb J^ and 
clean them with the cleaning brush G. The flat strips contain 
the nep and much of the short fibre, etc. 

The cylinder then gives the fibres to the doffer R, whose 
surface moves in the same direction as the cylinder, but its 
teeth are set opposite to that of the cylinder. The doffer may 
be from 24 in. to 28 in. diameter without wire, and, like the 
flats, is set at about yoVo ^^- from the cylinder wire. It makes 
about 11 r.p.m. for Egyptian, and 14 or more for American 
cotton. The doffer now carries the flbres underneath itself 
and the web is stripped off by the doffer comb S, making from 
1,400 to 1,600 double strokes per min. This comb is set at 
about Yo {ht in^. away from the doffer teeth. 

The web is then condensed in a trumpet (i.e. made into a 
sliver), passes through the calendar rollers U, through the 
coiler top F, and into the can W. 

Other points of importance are — 

1. The cylinder also has an undercasing L. 

2. There may be from 90 to 110 flats on a card, with from 
32 to 48 in action over the cylinder at one time. 

3. ilf is the front plate, and an alteration of the distance of 
this from the cylinder determines the amount of flat strips. 
N is the back cover plate. 

4. H is the flat grinding motion, while J shows the grinding 
roller in action. 

5. The cylinder and doffer wires become filled with fly during 
running, and are periodically stripped with a stripping brush 
(twice or three times a day). The card has to be stopped for 
this purpose. 

6. The flat strips fall on to the doffer cover after being 
stripped by the comb F. 

7. The production of a card varies from 250 to 800 lb. per 
week, according to the speed of doffer and feed part and the 
kind of cotton being carded. 

8. Carding engines are from 38 in. to 48 in. wide on the wire. 

9. The draft in a card is round about 100. 

Card Waste 

The waste taken out by the card is split up into two parts, 
one known as " strips " and the other as " fly." " Strips " are 
taken from the wire of the cylinder, doffer, and flats, whfle 






o 


^ 


fi< 


^-^'~"^ 


C5 


'■ \ 


A 


A 


K ./ 






I 


y 


^ 


y 






i 




o 




rt 



03 



7— (5093) 



87 



riRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



" fly " is the waste that flies off the takerin, cylinder, and 
doffer, and is deposited on the floor underneath the machine 
and drawn periodically by hand. 

The total waste taken out varies from 5 to 10 per cent 
according to requirements. 




Fig. 41. 



{Howard 
Bullough's Bend 



BuUough, Ltd.) 



Flexible Bends 

The flexible bend gets its name because, within certain 
limits, it is capable of being pulled into a part circle of reduced 
diameter, in order to maintain concentricity of flats and 
cylinder. 

It performs a very important function on the card, as in 
time, due to working and grinding, the teeth of fiats and cylinder 
get worn shorter, and it is necessary to keep them set at the 
required distance apart (^,7,,^ in.) to get the best results. 
The flats move slowly over the surface of these flexible bends. 



CARDING 89 

Fig. 40 shows Dobson & Barlow's flexible bend at B, with 
the five setting points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. It will be noticed that the 
setting screws pass through the card side A. Plugs in the set- 
ting brackets pass through holes drilled in the bend, so that 
the setting operation is very simple. 

Fig. 41 shows Howard & Bullough's bend. 

The Coiler 

The coiler (Fig. 42) receives its motion from the bottom 
calender roller B, the bevels OH giving motion to the upright 
shaft J , which in turn drives the coiler top roller X, the tube 
wheel T, and the can bottom wheel 0. The revolution of the 
can is slowly in the opposite direction to the tube wheel, and 
as the tube is not central with the can the sliver is placed in 
the can so that easy withdrawal at the next process is assured. 



90 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COtTRSE 




(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. 42. Diagram of Coiler Gearing 



CARDING 



91 




(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. 43. Gearing Plan of Card 



CHAPTER VIII 

Drawframes 

The drawframe is the machine always used before the slubbing 
frame which is the first flyframe, and in the case of mills 
spinning carded yarns it is the only machine between the 
carding engine and the slubbing frame. 

It is a very simple machine, exceedingly productive, and 
performs two very important operations, which improve the 
quality of the finished yarn to an inestimable degree. 

Its first duty is that of making the sliver uniform in weight 
per yard and even throughout its length, and this is done, as in 
the case of the finisher scutcher, by doubling. 

Mills usually use three heads of dra^\^rame, i.e. the cotton 
passes through three distinct drawframes, and at each frame 
doubling takes place. The popular number of slivers doubled 
together is six, and the draft in the rollers is usually about the 
same as the number of slivers, so that as this happens three 
times it will be seen that the total doublings are 6x6x6 
= 216, which tells us at once that any error in the card sliver, 
and card slivers are certainly fairly uneven, is reduced to a 
very fine degree by the time it has passed through all the 
drawframes. 

The second duty of the drawframe is to make all the fibres 
parallel, and this is done by passing the cotton through four 
lines of drawing rollers, each line moving at a greater surface 
speed than the previous line, and suitably set. 

This parallelization of the fibres is absolutely essential, as 
without it it would be impossible to draw them out to the 
required degree of fineness in spun yarns, and a round, even 
thread could not be produced. 

Passage of Cotton through Drawframe 

Fig. 44 shows a section of the drawframe as made by 
J. Hetherington & Sons. The card or comber sliver is drawn 
from the cans through the sliver guide, which consists of a 
plate having holes drilled into it which are only large enough 

92 



DRAWFRAMES 



93 



in diameter to allow the sliver to pass through, and will 
prevent any knots from passing forward. 

There is a slight draft (say 1-05) between the " single " 



COILEIR 








Ht 










Mlllll 


1 


















WEH HT PELIEVINC MOTION 
C TOOTH C/\M5 FOP RAISING PLATE. 



Q PLATE rOR RAlSlNq WEIGHTS 
ThROU(;H LIFTINC; ROOi 



V 5LOT TO ALLOW PLATE D 

TO Rise. 



(J. Hetherington & Sons, Ltd.) 
Fig. 44. Section of Drawing Frame 



SPIDER SH 




FIG. 6 . 
SIDE VltW OF STOP MOTION 

Fig. 44a 




(J. Hetherington & Sons, Ltd.) 
Fig. 44b. Spider 



preventor rollers and the back pair of drawing rollers, so that 
as the slivers are dra^^ii into the machine they are always tight 
between these two points, between which are placed the 
tumblers or spoons, one for each sliver. These tumblers are 



94 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

very sensitively balanced, so that if an end breaks, or a can 
runs empty, or a particularly light sliver conies forward, they 
immediately fall so that their lower ends come into contact 
with the spider shaft, and stopping this, the strap is placed 
on the loose pulley by the action of a spring and the machine 
is immediately stopped. This quick stopping of the machine 
prevents the broken end from passing into the drawing rollers, 
and so prevents uneven work, and assures a good piecing. 

The slivers now pass through the four pairs of drawing 
rollers, and here are doubled together and drawn out to the 
required amount, and the resultant sliver passes through the 
front trumpet, which is also coupled to the automatic stop 
motion, and so stops the machine when an end breaks at the 
front, through the calender rollers, and into the can. 

A reference to the illustration will bring to the student's 
notice the following important details. 

1. The " single " preventor rollers are so named because due 
to the fact that they keep the sliver tight over the tumbler 
they prevent any excessively thin slivers from passing forward, 
as the least reduction of pressure on the tumbler causes it to 
overbalance and stop the machine. 

Also it will be seen that, due to the introduction of these 
" single " preventor rollers, as soon as the broken or thin end 
of the sliver leaves the preventor rollers the tumbler will fall, 
and so the machine will be at a standstill long before the end 
can possibly have reached the back drawing roller. 

The cross shaft connecting the front and back spider shafts 
is clearly shown in the illustration, while the stop motion itself 
is also shown. 

2. The drawing rollers have both top and bottom clearers, 
the top usually being of the slow-moving, endless, and self- 
cleaning type (Ermen clearer), while the bottom may be either 
flat or circular clearers. 

3. The weight-relieving motion is applied to take the 
weight off the top rollers when taking off a roller lap or when 
the machine is left standing for any length of time, in order to 
prevent the leather rollers from becoming flattened or marked 
by the flutes of the bottom rollers. 

4. A good speed of front drawing roller is 300 to 350 r.p.m. 

5. Spring weight hooks are used for the " dead " weights on 
the front line of rollers to enable faster running of the front 



DRAWFRAMES 



95 



roller, and to help to increase the life of the leather covering 
of the top roller. 

The Drawing Rollers 

Fig. 45 shows the drawing rollers in position on the 
roller stand, and the Ermen clearer. The roller stands are 
adjustable by means of the set screws underneath, so that any 
required setting can be obtained. 

It is usual to make the top rollers slightly less (say ^^ in. or 
Yc, in.) than the bottom rollers in order to prevent the leather 




TENSION ROLLER 



TOP ROLLERS-/^ 

I K 

BOTTOM ROLLERS 



1 






Li_lL_J 



NOTCHED STEEL ROLLER 
FOR DRIVING FLANNEL 



TRAVERSE ROD 



n 



ROLLER STAND 



0340 I 



(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig 45. Ermen' s Clbareb 



rollers from becoming fluted through continual contact with 
the bottom fluted rollers, and the flutes of the bottom steel 
rollers are also cut of slightly varying pitch for the same reason. 
In all machines having draft rollers it is usual to have the 
bottom roller next to the front roller (i.e. second from front) 
less (say, Jin. or ^^ in.) than the others, as this enables us to 
get closer settings. 

The number of leather-covered top rollers varies, but the 
popular method is to have the front two leather covered and 
the back two fluted. 




96 



DRAWFRAMES 



97 



The following are roller diameters and settings which would 
give good results for the cotton named — 





Front 


2nd 


3rd 


Back 


Egyptian and Sea Islands — 


inches 


inches 


inches 


inches 


Top 

Bottom .... 
Setting .... 


H 

1 


If 
\ 1 


f ' 1 


¥ 


American — 










Top 

Bottom .... 
Setting .... 


1 ^v 

1 


ifV. 

I 1 


J 1 


f 


Indian — 

Top 

Bottom .... 
Setting .... 


1 -^ 

H 

1 


h 1 


8 ^ 





The weights on the draft rollers might be somewhat as 
follows — 

Front, 40 to 44 lb. per roller. 
Other lines, 32 to 40 lb. per roller. 



The Coiler Motion 

From Fig. 46 it will be seen that, although simple, the 
drawframe coiler motion is slightly different from that of the 
carding engine. 

The following terms are important in connection with 
drawframes — 

Boxes. This is the name often given to drawframes. 

Heads. This denotes the number of series of drawframe 
rollers the sliver passes through, and is usually three, i.e. when 
the cotton is said to pass through " three heads of boxes " we 
mean that the cotton passes through three distinct drawframes, 
and if there are six ends up at each drawframe the total 
doublings would be 6 X 6 X 6 = 216. 

Deliveries. By this we mean the number of times the same 




98 



DRAWrHAMES 99 

process takes place in any one drawframe. Seven or eight 
deliveries are quite common in one machine. 

A set of drawframes three head seven delivery, then, will 
mean that there are three processes of drawing, and seven 
deliveries in each process, or a total of twenty-one deliveries. 
Tenters are usually paid according to the number of deliveries 
they operate. 



CHAPTER IX 

Bobbin and Flyframes 

These machines vary in number according to the counts to 
be spun, and consist of slubber, intermediate, roving-frame, 
fine jackframe. 

For coarse counts it is usual to use two only, viz., slubber 
and large bobbin ro\dng-frame. For medium and medium-fine 
counts three are employed, viz., slubber, intermediate, and 
roving-frame. 

For very fine counts it is usual to use all four machines in 
the order mentioned. It is usual to double two ends at each 
of these machines except the slubber, in order to still further 
reduce the amount of error in the finished article. This 
doubling does not take place at the slubber because this frame 
is fed from draAvframe cans, and two of these to each end 
would take up far too much floor space, whereas in the case 
of the other flyframes the creels can easily be adapted without 
affecting the floor space in the least. 

The work done by all these flyframes is similar, as is the 
construction of the machines themselves, the only difference 
being that all the parts of the machines are lighter and less in 
size in the later flyframes, as, of course, the bobbins are made 
less at each succeeding process. 

It will be as well to point out here, that in spite of the fact 
that in theory all dirt and foreign matter has been taken out of 
the cotton before it passes into the drawframe, a certain 
amount always remains, and by passing the slivers and rovings 
through the drawing rollers of all the later machines, we 
assist a good deal of the dirt out of the cotton, and it is deposited 
on the various roller beams, as when all is said and done 
" drafting " by the use of rollers is " opening." 

Another point of great importance is that the drawframe 
sliver produced at the finisher drawframe is only just barely 
strong enough in bulk to pull out of the can at the slubbing 
frame, and as the thinning out process is continued at the 
flyframes, it is essential to insert sufficient twist to give the 
roving the necessary strength to draw off in the creel of the 
next machine. 

100 



BOBBIN AND FLYFRAMES 101 

The objects of bobbin and flyframes, then, may be 
summarized as follows — 

1. To continue the drawing out process so that finally a 
suitable mule or ring yarn shall be produced. 

2. To put into the roving sufficient twist to enable it to be 
unwound at the creel of the next machine. 

3. To wind the roving on to suitable bobbins, the finer the 
roving the less the bobbins will be. 

With reference to No. 1, it used to be generally recognized 
that the following were reasonable drafts : drawframe (if six 
ends up) six ; slubber, intermediate, and roving-frame six ; 
mule and ringframe twelve to fourteen ; and bobbins were 
made pretty well according to these drafts. 

Nowadays, however, drafts of twenty or even more are used 
at both mule and ringframe, and a serious attempt has been 
made recently to reduce the number of flyframes necessary 
in the cardroom, by increasing the draft. J. Hetherington & 
Sons have produced an " Inter-rover " frame which is capable 
of drafts unthought of in any flyframe a few years ago, and, 
of course, there are now many systems of high drafts applied 
to mules and ringframes. 

A list of twists necessary to be put into rovings will be found 
on page 160, the better cottons requiring the lesser twist, 
and if worked to the figures mentioned would give good 
results. 

In actual practice, however, the correct amount of twist to 
be put into rovings is that amount which will just allow these 
rovings to be drawn off in the creel of the next process, and no 
more, as any excess is simply unnecessarily lost production ; 
it will be seen shortly that an increase of twist on any flyframe, 
etc., means a proportionate decrease of production. 

The winding mechanism, which is probably the most 
important part of any fljrframe, will be taught in full in the 
second year course, but the student must know that conical- 
ended bobbins are made to prevent the cotton from dropping 
under or over, and that frames are generally made with the bob- 
bins moving faster than the spindles, i.e. bobbin-leading frames. 

PASSAGE OF COTTON THROUGH A FLYFRAME 
The cotton is drawn from the can or creel by the revolution 
of the back drawing rollers, and passes through the three 



102 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



lines of drawing rollers, where it is drafted to the necessary 
degree. 




0222 

(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. 48. Section or Flyframes 



From here the end of cotton passes through a hole in the 
top of the flyer, which is attached to the spindle, out of a hole 



BOBBIN AND FLYFRAMES 103 

at the side of the flyer top, down the flyer leg, round the 
presser (usually three times round) and on to the bobbin. 

By a careful examination of Fig. 48 it will be seen that the 
bobbins are driven quite independently of the spindles, which 
are driven at a speed necessary to give to the roving the 




(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. 49. Creel for Flyframes 

requisite amount of twist. This twist is imparted to the 
roving between the nip of the front drawing rollers and the 
flyer top, as the cotton is virtually gripped at these two points 
while the spindles are revolving. 

The bobbins, which are carried on the top rail, make 
sufficient extra revolutions to the spindles to permit the 
cotton roving to be wound on to themselves, and these 
revolutions are continually reducing in number as the diameter 

8— (5093) 




-ONIAOa- 
-1^9-0— 31Via3l/\jy3±NI--"'-'-oi-v G- 



104 



BOBBIN AND PLYFRAMES 105 

of the bobbins increase, but are always greater than those of 
the spindles, otherwise no winding would take place. 

The top rail moves slowly up and down, gradually reducing 
its amount of movement at both ends and so forming the 
conical ends on the bobbins. 

Before passing into the drawing rollers the roving from the 
creel passes through a hole or eye in the traverse bar which 
moves slowly, backwards and forwards across the width of 
the leather rollers, and is used to prevent " channeling " of 
the leather by the roving continually running in the same place. 

These traverse motions are applied to all machines having 
drawing rollers in one form or another, and one type is 
explained in Chapter XI. 

Bobbin and flyframes have in nearly all cases two rows of 
spindles, and the total number of spindles varies from about 
60 in a slubber to 240 or more in a roving or fine jackframe. 

Bobbins vary in size from about 12 in. in the case of a 
slubber to as low as 6 in., and sometimes even 5 in. in the case 
of a fine jackframe. The length taken up by the cotton on a 
bobbin is known as the " lift," while the gauge of a flyframe is 
generally denoted as "so many spindles in so many inches," 
viz., a roving-frame might be 6 in. lift, eight spindles in 
18 in. (or 4| in. gauge), i.e. four spindles in each row. 

The Drawing Rollers 

There are three lines of drawing rollers, the bottom lines 
being all fluted metal rollers, while the top lines vary very 
considerably according to circumstances. 

In some cases the top rollers are all leather covered and 
weighted with " dead " or lever weights, while in others this 
only applies to the front and middle rollers, the back one being 
a large self -weigh ted plain metal one. 

Probably the most popular method adopted, however, is 
to have, in the case of roving-frames and fine jackframes at 
any rate, only the front top roller leather covered and weighted, 
the middle top roller being plain metal polished, self -weighted, 
and of small diameter, while the back top roller is large self- 
weighted as previously mentioned. Various methods of 
cleaning these top rollers are shown in Fig. 51, and the bottom 
rollers are usually cleaned with flannel-covered, circular, 
friction clearers. 



106 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



Roller diameters vary, not only being less in the later 
flyframes, but also according to the type of cotton being 



FLAT WITH ROUND TOP CLEARER 




FLAT WITH TRAVELLING CLEAREB CLOTK 




RODS TO CARRY BOBBIMS WHEN DOFFInO 

© o 

ROUND TOP Clearer without flat for 

SELF-WEJGHTED middle and back ROLLERS: 




flat with ordinary stationary clearer. 



-QO 




Fig. 51 



(Asa Lees & Co., Ltd.) 



produced, but the following would give good results for 
Egyptian cotton, and less, of course, for American cotton. 





Front 


Middle 


Back 


Slubbers — 








Top 

Bottom .... 


If 




2i 
If 


Intermediates^ 








Top 

Bottom .... 


If 


4 


2i 
If 


Roving Frames^ 








Top 

Bottom .... 




1 


2 



(w) = " dead " weighted. 



BOBBIN AND FLYFRAMES 



107 



Settings are always greater than the length of staple being 
used. 

The cap bar nebs, in which the top rollers run, are made 
adjustable, so that any required position of top roller can 
be obtained. 



Usual Weights foe, Flyframe Rollers 



Kind of Machine 


Kind of Cotton 


Front 


Middle 


Back 






lb. 


lb. 


Slubber . 


Indian, American, and Russian 


18 


24 Saddle and Bridle 




Egyptian and Sea Islands 


16 


20 




)> 


14 


12 1 Self-weighted 


Intermediate 


Indian, American, and Russian 


16 


20 Saddle and Bridle 


,, 


Egyptian and Sea Islands 


14 


18 


>• 


)» M 1> 


12 


10 1 Self -weighted 


Roving . 


Indian, American, and Russian 


18 


24 Saddle and Bridle 


Roving and Jack 


Egyptian and Sea Islands 


16 


20 


Roving . 


)> ») »> 


10 


Self-weighted Self-weighted 


Jack 


" 


8 


" 



When one considers that frames contain up to 240 spindles 
or more in some cases, it will be seen at once that the bottom 
drawing rollers are a tremendous length, and being of such 
small diameter would be damaged if any attempt were made 
to send them to the mill in one piece. 

This being so, they are made in short lengths of about 
18 in. or 20 in. of mild steel, and in some cases are case- 
hardened all over to prevent injury, whereas in others only 
the bearings are case-hardened. 

Each piece of bottom roller has the following special 
features : immediately next to the bearing is a square or 
" spigot " end which is slightly tapered, and the other end 
of the roller has a square socket into which the " spigot " 
ends fits very accurately, thus forming what is known as a 
" spigot joint," and producing any required length of roller 
in one working piece, but which for transit, repair, cleaning, 
etc., can be easily pulled to pieces. 



Driving of Rollers and Spindles 

Fig. 53 shows the complete flyframe drive, but as the 
student is only required to understand the driving of rollers 
and spindles, that part only will be explained. 



108 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



To the Spindles. The frame driving shaft receives its revolu- 
tions through the strap from the Hne shaft, and passes straight 
through the gearing portion of the machine as shown. 

On the inside of the driving pulleys and flywheel is the 
wheel H, which through the large carrier wheel drives the 
spindle shaft wheel K. On these spindle shafts are screwed 
the skew gear wheels L, each of which drives its own spindle 
pinion M. It will be seen that the revolutions of the spindles 
on a flyframe is constant. 

To the Rollers. On the inner end of the frame driving shaft 
is the twist wheel B, which drives, through a carrier, the inside 




$top Bracket 
for Flats 



^Am Lees & Co.) 
Fig. 52. Section of Roller Stand 



top cone drum wheel V. At the out end of the top cone drum 
shaft is the wheel W which drives the large front roller wheel X. 
From here the draft roller gearing is the same in principle as 
that of the drawframe. 

Seeing that the speed of the spindles is constant, it will be 
seen that any alteration of twist in the roving must be made 
by reducing or increasing the speed of delivery of the front 
drawing roller according to requirements, and this is done by 
making an alteration of the driving twist wheel B, a larger 
wheel increases the speed of front roller and so reduces the 
twist and vice-versa. 




km p -Miriffpiiriimiiii!iiiii|].iiiJ jiiiim^^ 



' o 



109 



110 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



Spindles 

Spindle speeds on flyframes may be somewhat as follows — 



Slubbers . 
Intermediates 
Roving-frames 
Jackframes 



400 to 600 r.p.m. 
600 to 800 „ 
900 to 1,100 „ 
Up to 1,300 „ 



Front roller speeds ma}^ be as follows — 

Slubbers 90 to 200 r.p.m. 

Intermediates . . . . 70 to 180 ,, 

Roving frames . . . . 50 to 130 ,, 

Flyframe spindles are steel rods of from | in. to | in. 
diameter according to the machine they are for, and are 




Fig. 54. 



(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Spindle Footstep Lubbicator 



slotted at the top and shaped slightly to hold the top cross pin 
of the flyer, and so make them revolve as one unit. At the 
bottom, lmoA\Ti as the spindle foot, the spindle is tapered to a 
point to allow it to fit well into the spindle footstep. The 
footstep is set-screwed to the spindle rail as sho\\Ti in Fig. 54. 

In order to effect perfect lubrication of the spindle footsteps, 
the makers groove the spindle from that part where it is 
reduced in thickness to form the footstep, as shown in Fig. 54, 



BOBBIN AND FLYFRAMES 111 

and extend the groove up the spindle to just above the top of 
the spindle wheel. They further make a recess or groove in 
the top of the spindle wheel so as to form an oil cup, and the 
oil placed therein flows down the groove to the footstep. This 
entirely does away with the necessity of having to lift the 
spindle out to oil the footstep. The footstep itself is entirely 
encased, so that it is impossible for dirt or fly to get into the 
oil chamber. 

Collars and Bearings 

Each flyframe spindle has two bearings, one in the spindle 
footstep as just mentioned, and the other is carried up and 
down in the lifter rail, so that all spindles pass through a 
collar in the lifter rail. 

There are two types of collars, long and short, and both 
are very extensively used, each being able to claim several 
advantages. The long collar passes almost through the bob- 
bin, and as a result holds the spindle much higher up, 
towards the top, and so gives much steadier running to the 
spindle than is possible with the short collar, and this is a 
very important factor in these days of high speeds. 

The short collar does not enter the bobbins at all, is much 
lighter and cheaper, and is much less likely to bind the spindle 
due to dirt, fly, etc., than the long collar. 

Probably the chief advantage of the short collar over the 
long collar is the fact that in using it a much less diameter 
bobbin can be used than is the case with a long collar, and so 
more roving can be put on the bobbin, and in the long run this 
means greater production. 



CHAPTER X 

Ring Spinning Frames 

There are two chief methods of spinning yarns : (1) mule 
spinning, and (2) ring spinning. 

The first will be explained in the next chapter, while in 
the present chapter we will deal with the ringframe. 

Like flyframes, the spinning of yarns on ringframes is con- 
tinuous, i.e. the roving is drawn out, twisted and wound on the 
bobbin simultaneously, and this is made possible by the use of 
a hardened steel ring and traveller which encircles the spindle. 

The use of the ringframe is very popular indeed, and, while 
the mule holds sway in this country, abroad there are many 
more " rings " than mules. 

Another continuous spinning machine which at one time 
was very popular for the spinning of yarns is the flyer throstle 
spinning frame, which is the machine originally invented by 
Arkwright. Nowadays this machine is more used for the 
doubling of yarns than for the spinning of them. It makes a 
very uniform, solid, round yarn, but is now chiefly confined 
to the spinning of special low counts. 

Yarn spun on the flyer throstle was called '' water twist " 
because the machine was originally driven by water-power, 
and this is still a market term for certain types of strong, well- 
twisted yarn spun either on the ringframe or the " throstle." 

THE RINGFRAME 

Perhaps the chief reason for the success of the ringframe is 
that compared with the mule, spindle for spindle, it is capable 
of much higher productions, the mule being an intermittent 
spinning machine, as will be seen later. 

Up to now, however, it has not been found possible to spin 
as fine counts on " rings " as mules, and the mule has advan- 
tages in the producing of a more even yarn, which, it would 
appear, ^can never be attained by the ringframe. I refer to 
'" carriage drafting," " ratch," etc. 

Ringfra-jnes arp t>vo'§ided machines. 

112 



RING SPINNING FRAMES 



113 




{Howard & Bullowjh, Ltd.) 
Fig. 55. Passage of Cotton through a 

RiNGFRAME 



114 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

Passage of Cotton through a Ringframe 

The roving is drawTi by the draft rollers from the bobbins A 
in the creel as shown in Fig. 55, passes through the traverse 
guide and into the three lines of draft rollers B, where the 
necessary counts are obtained by the use of the usual draft 
gearing. From here the yarn passes through the thread wire 
C, which is set directly over the centre of the spindle D, 
through the steel traveller H, which revolves on the ring F in 
the ring rail G, and so on to the bobbin E. I is the rigid spindle 
rail which supports the spindles as shown. 

The yarn is shaped on the bobbins by the movement of the 
ring rail G, which receives an upward and downward movement 
through the medium of a " heart " cam. This movement is 
slow upwards and fast when going down, the fast downward 
movement being given to put binding coils of yarn on to the 
bobbin, and so help to make the yarn easy to unwind at the 
next process. 

RINGFRAME DETAILS 

The Draft Rollers 

One of the chief features of the ringframe is its system of 
draft rollers, as it is the only frame which has inclined roller 
stands, and the whole of the rollers are in this way tilted from 
the horizontal. 

This is done to allow the twist to run up the yarn as near as 
possible to the " nip " of the front drawing rollers, and so to 
make the yarn as strong as possible, and reduce the number of 
broken ends. 

The amount of this inclination varies, as the softer and finer 
the yarns are, the weaker they are, and so more inclination of 
rollers is required. For twist yarns it is from 15° to 30°, while 
for weft yarns it is from 30° to 45°, although the usual amount 
is round about 25° to 27°, as it has been found that if this is 
exceeded, piecing-up is made very difficult, and the top rollers, 
clearers, etc., are inclined to lean forward excessively. 

There are two chief methods of weighting the rollers : 
(1) dead weighting, and (2) lever weighting, and both are 
shown in Figs. 56 and 57, being self-explanatory. Students are 
advised to notice particularly the cap bars A and the traverse 
rod B. 



RING SPINNING FRAMES 



115 



Bottom rollers are made of diameters to suit the staple 
of the cotton. Front and back rollers might have the follow- 
ing diameters: for Egyptian cotton IJin., American 1 in., 
Indian I in. ; with middle roller i in. less in each case. 




Trd^vcrsc Rod 



C&P - btr 



Roller Sra^nol 



l^ollcr 5ed.m 




Fig. 56. Dead Weighting 



Fig. 



(Howard & BuUough, Ltd.) 
57. Lever Weighting 



The Thread Boards. 

The thread guide, which is fitted into the lappet (Fig. 58) 
and is set directly over the centre of the spindle, would 
normally be in the way when it is required to take a bobbin off 
for piecing-up or any other purpose, and so each lappet is 
hinged to a metal rail A, which makes it possible for each 
lappet to be raised independently at will. 

Also when dofhng is taking place it is necessary to have some 
means of lifting all the thread wires simultaneously, and drop- 
ping them again after doffing, and this is done by having the 
metal rail A in its turn hinged to the roller beam and operated 
as shown by the handle. 







116 




1 2 

" Birkenhead " type for Double Roving " Birkenhead " type for Single Roving 








^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^-^^^^-^^^^ 



3 4 

Ordinary Vertical type for Single Roving Ordinary Vertical type for Double Roving 

(J. Hetherington ds Sons, Ltd.) 
.Fig. 59. Elevations of Various Creels 
117 



118 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



r^ n 



I 



{Dobwn & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. 60. Patent "Simplex" Flexible Spinning Spindles 
With and without bobbin cup. 



RING SPINNING FRAMES 119 

The thread wires are about 5 in. below the roller nip and 
about 2 in. above the spindle top. 

Creels 

Fig. 59 shows various types of ringframe creels as made by 
J. Hetherington & Sons. 

Spindles and Spindle Rails. 

The spindle rail (/ in Fig. 55) runs the length of the frame on 
both sides, and is drilled to receive all the spindles and poker 
bars (which give the movement to the ring rail). The spindles, 
which must be set absolutely concentric with the rings in the 
ring rail, are self-contained, the footstep and bolster bearings 
being in one piece. It is this footstep and bolster bearing 
which is securely fastened to the spindle rail, and a reference 
to the illustrations (Figs. 60 and 61) will show that an inner 
tube fits into this bolster, and is secured by means of a small 
spring, and the spindle itself then fits into the inner tube. 
The bolster is so made that there is always oil at the foot of the 
spindle. The spindle-holder is to prevent the tendency of the 
spindle to work upwards during running. 

The spindle has a slight flexibility at the spindle point due to 
the use of the inner tube. 

Ringframe spindle band is usually tubular and -J in. diameter, 
but in recent times tape driving has been introduced as shown 
in Fig. 62, one endless tape driving four spindles, two on each 
side of the frame. The tape drive gives, it is claimed, a more 
uniform spindle speed, and hence more uniform turns per inch 
in the yarn. 

Spindle speeds vary from about 7,000 to 10,500, and the 
highest speed can be used for about 30s to 40s counts, much 
lower or higher counts requiring a reduction of spindle speed. 

Tin Rollers. 

Ringframes may have one or two lines of tin rollers. 

In the case of the two-line system, the contact surfaces 
always revolve in the same direction, but this may be either 
outwardly or inwardly. Fig. 63 shows the " inward " rotation 
of tin rollers. It will be seen that tin rollers F and C drive the 
opposite line of spindles B D. 

9— (5093) 



120 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 




tx->>^^ 



{Dobson cfc Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. G1. Patent " Simplex " Spinning Spindles, for 
Spinning on Paper Tubes 




2 
^ S 

o 

CO 33 

xn 
o 

« g 

< 



121 



122 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



Ring Rail, Rings and Travellers. 

The ring rail is mounted on the poker bars which are coupled 
to the building motion, and by the action of the " heart " cam 
the ring rail is made to move up and down, and so shape the 
yarn on the bobbin. The ring rail is made in pieces, each piece 
being drilled to receive a certain number of rings. 

These rings are of forged steel, hardened and j)olished, and 



l^oller SeMTi 



Creel &o^^om 




c)pringpi 



JElQor_,LeveL 



Spindle 
Rail. 



-^oo^, 



(Hotvard & BullougJi, Ltd.) 
Fig. 63. Tin Rollers of Ringframe 

may be held in position in the ring rail by means of a small 
set-screw, or they may be clamped in. It is essential that 
the spindle should be set absolutely central with the ring. 

The gauge of ring spindles may be 2| in. for 20s counts and 
below with a ring If in. diameter, while for finer counts these 
two figures might be 2| in. and If in. 

The traveller, which performs what is probably the most 
important duty on a ringframe, is a small piece of steel 



EING SPINNING FRAMES 



123 



shaped CT^ which clips on to the ring, and through which the 
yarn passes on its way to the bobbin. 

It is the traveller (Fig. 64) which regulates the amount of 
yarn wound on to the bobbin by lagging behind the spindle 
in speed due to the pull of the yarn on the traveller. 



Lapp 




Tra^veller 



(Howard & Bullough, Ltd.) 



Fig. 64 



Also seeing that the yarn passes through the traveller from 
the thread guide, it will be seen that the traveller actually 
puts the twist in the yarn, i.e. if the revolutions of the spindle 
are 9000 r.p.m. and those of the traveller 8900, and the yarn 
delivered is 500 in., then the twist per inch in the yarn will be 



124 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



^-^-, and the revolutions of the spindle used for winding the 
yarn on to the bobbin will be 9000 - 8900 = 100. 

In some cases a traveller clearer is fitted to the ring rail, 
being a small piece of upright steel set just to miss the traveller 




(Piatt Bros.) 



Fig. 65. Blinker Separators 



in its revolution, and for the purpose of driving off any dirt 
or fly which gathers on the traveller during working. 
Travellers are graded as follows — 

18, 17, 16 ... 1, 1/0, 2/0 .. . 16/0, 17/0, 18/0 

the first being the heaviest and working down lighter, and, of 
course, the finer the counts the lighter the traveller will have to 



RING SPINNING FRAMES 125 

be. The strength of the yarn, twist being put in, etc., will also 
affect the size of traveller to be used. 

ANTI-BALLOONING APPLIANCES 

Owing to the high speeds adopted in ring spinning there is 
always a tendency for the yarn to fly out between the thread 
guide and the traveller, and unless prevented from doing so, 
the tendency would be for the threads to touch and break each 
other. 

This flying out of the threads is known as " ballooning," and 
the greater the distance between the thread guide and the 
traveller, the greater will be the " balloon," i.e. it is always 
worst at the early part of the building of the bobbin. A 
certain amount of ballooning is necessary and is a good thing, 
as a good " balloon " shows that there is no tendency to 
strain the threads by having them too tight. 

Excessive ballooning can, of course, be regulated by having 
heavier travellers, but in order to make a certain amount 
possible we use separators (Figs. 65, 66, 67, 68), and in many 
cases these separators are tilted out of action by the ring rail 
when the bobbins are half full. 

By placing these separators between the spindles it is possible 
in some cases to get \ in. closer spindle gauge. 

They must, of course, be absolutely smooth, free from any 
sharp corners, and project sufflciently to prevent threads 
from ballooning round the front. 




(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. 66. Part Section of Ring Spinning Frame 
(Showing separator) 
126 



' --- hq»ji45^ 




(J. Hetherington <& Sons, Ltd.) 
Fig. 67. Separators Down (in action) 




(J. Hetherington <& Sons, Ltd.) 
Fig. 67a. Separators Up (Out of Action) 
127 






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,28 



CHAPTER XI 

Mule Spinning : The Self-actor Mule 

The Chief Objects of Mule Spinning. 

The chief object of the mule is to convert the roving or 
twisted strands of cotton delivered from the jackframe into a 
thread of a predetermined fineness, strength, and regularity, 
and also to place the thread so produced into a compact 
formation which is termed a cop, and proves to be (if produced 
on the right lines) an ideal commercial article admitting a 
maximum of handling with a minimum of deterioration of the 
spun yarn, and consequently the lowest possible percentage of 
waste when passing through subsequent processes. The mule, 
unlike most other textile machines, is intermittent in its action, 
and this fact permits of a more judicious treatment of the 
material in process than would be the case of a machine which 
is continuous in action. 

To ensure the production of the best possible quality of 
yarn at the mule, it is essential that the roving fed to the mule 
shall be perfectly clean and composed of fibres uniform in 
length and diameter, parallel to each other, and containing 
a minimum of twist consistent with the carrying requirements 
from mule creek to rollers. 

The Passage of Cotton from Creel to Spindle. 

Fig. 69 shows a cross-section through mule creel, rollers, and 
carriage. The roving bobbins A' are sustained by wooden 
pegs or skewers, which are pointed at the lower end and 
inserted into porcelain bearings to allow of easy rotation, being 
held vertically by the creel rod and supports A. From the 
bobbin the roving passes over guide wires, through the 
traversing guide B, and then through three pairs of revolving 
rollers, each pair having a greater surface speed than the 
preceding pair, thus having the effect of attenuating or draft- 
ing the roving. The relative speeds of the front pair to the 
back pair of rollers is governed by the degree of fineness 
required in the thread, and is controlled by gearing at the 

129 




<>1 •>,. 



130 



MULE SPINNING 131 

headstock. Assuming the counts of roving fed and the speed 
of front roller to be unchanged, the degree of fineness of yarn 
delivered is increased by slowing down the feed, or vice versa, 
by speeding up the feed. From the nip of the front pair of 
rollers the yarn is twisted by the revolving spindle F, around 
which the yarn is coiled, and secured at a point just above the 
bearing J. 

The creels, drawing rollers, and carriage extend to the right 
and left of the central mechanism or headstock. The number 
of spindles carried in one mule carriage may vary from 600 in 
the older type of mule up to 1200 for twist and 1400 for 
weft yarns in modern mules. The distance from centre to 
centre of spindles may be from 1 in. to ly\ in. for pin cop and 
weft yarns, and If^ in. to 1 J in. for twist yarns, and for very 
coarse waste yarns the distance from centre to centre of 
spindle may reach 2 J in. 

The length of a mule over-all very rarely exceeds 145 ft., 
and the layout of component parts is as follows : The main 
central shaft, termed the rim shaft, is parallel to the line shaft 
and counter shaft. The front line of rollers is at right angle 3 
to rim shaft and extends the whole length of the mule, with 
middle and back rollers set parallel to front line and being 
adjustable for distance from centre to centre, are adaptable 
to various classes of cotton. The spindles, which are set in 
line and at an inclination from the vertical towards the rollers, 
are parallel to the rollers and have their upper extremities in one 
common plane, which is slightly lower than that occupied by 
the rollers. 

The spindles F and tin rollers F' , which drive the spindles 
through the medium of thin endless bands F", are all supported 
by the carriage K, which is capable of being moved horizontally 
outwards from and inwards towards the rollers on the rails S. 
This outward and inward movement covers a uniform distance, 
and is called the carriage " stretch " or " draw." 

The dotted line 1 in Fig. 69 represents the spindle in 
its maximum inward position, and the dotted line 2 in its 
maximum outward position. 

Each spindle runs in two brass bearings, one at the spindle 
foot shown at J', and the other a certain distance above the 
wharve or small band pulley shown at J. Connecting the top 
and bottom bearings is a series of brackets H, which are 



132 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

regularly spaced along the mule at intervals of about 4 ft. 
Attached to each bracket H are two adjustmg rods, the top 
one H' and the bottom one H", each making a connection 
from i? to a cast-iron bracket secured to the back of the 
carriage. 

By means of the rods H' and H" the angle of inclination of 
the spindles is adjusted, and when set correctly the duty of 
H' and H" is to keep the whole mule of spindles steady and 
perfectly in line. Each tin roller is about 7 ft. in length made up 
of sections of sheet tin rolled to form a cylinder of 5 in. or 6 in. 
diameter and supplied at each end with a stamped steel block 
bored out to receive a short shaft about 9 in. by 1 in. by means 
of which each roller is connected to its neighbour, so that when 
coupled together the whole line of rollers revolves as one and 
is supported in bearings (placed between each roller) which 
encircle a portion of the short connecting shafts. 

Extending the whole length of the mule are two faller shafts 
N and 0, which are parallel to the rollers and situated in front 
of the spindles. Regularly spaced along these bars are a 
series of sickles, G and G' , secured to the shafts by set-screws, 
and each sickle having a perforation near the tip through which 
passes a wire known as the faller wire. The duty of the wire 
passing through G is to control the spacing of coils of yarn 
as it is wound on the cop, and therefore the shape of the cop, 
whilst the wire carried by G' keeps the yarn at a suitable 
tension whilst the winding operation is being performed. The 
whole weight of the traversing parts of the mule, which are 
carriage, spindles, tin rollers, and faller mechanism is supported 
at intervals of about 8 ft. by the screws M, bearer brackets L, 
and bowls L' . The screws M are the means by which the 
carriage is levelled, raised or lowered to suit requirements. 
The rails S must be set at right angles to the roller beam and 
perfectly level. 

The roller beam D is angular in section as shown, and its 
top surface planed and carries roller stands E at regular 
intervals of about 17 in., which form the bearings for the 
drawing rollers. The spring-piece brackets C are placed at 
intervals of about 4 ft. and support the creels A, back shaft 
and scrolls PR, roller beam and rollers DE. Adjustments for 
height of rollers and creel are obtained through the slots shown 
inC. 



MULE SPINNING 133 

Method of Driving the Rollers, Spindles, and Carriage During 
the Outward Run. 

The mechanism in operation during the outward run is 
termed the drawing out motion, and whilst in action the actual 
spinning of yarn is being performed. The front roller is 
delivering the drawn fibres at the required density and linear 
velocity, the spindles are revolving at a high rate inserting 
twist into the fibres, whilst the carriage carrying the spindles 
is moving outwards, keeping the twisted yarn at the correct 
tension. 

The front roller and carriage are driven through the medium 
of clutch boxes, the main advantage being that either clutch 
may be disengaged independently of the other, and as the 
motion is derived from one source, this is an essential feature 
of medium and fine count mules, because on these mules 
jacking or ratching is employed. 

Jacking is the term applied to the movement of the carriage 
after the front roller clutch box has opened and the front 
roller stopped. The effect of jacldng is to subject the yarn 
between the nip of front rollers and spindle points to a tighten- 
ing or stretching process, and to a certain degree, corrects 
defective drafting by pulling thick soft places out and possibly 
breaking thin places down. 

Explanation of Fig. 70. 

During the outward run of mule carriage the down belt is 
on the pulley A, which is keyed to the rim shaft B. Fast to B 
is a rim pinion C, which drives through a single or double 
carrier wheel, the back change or speed wheel D, which is 
secured to the end of the side shaft D'. At the other end of D' 
is secured a small level E, which is in gear with a sleeve bevel F. 

The sliding half of roller clutch box F'' is loose on the front 
roller F', and has a peg cast on to its inside which is engaged 
with a recess in a disc which is keyed to F', so that the rotation 
of F with the clutch box closed gives motion to the front roller 
F'. 

Cast on to i'' is a long sleeve, and at the end a wheel G is 
secured. The whole including F, sleeve, and G being loosely 
mounted on the front roller. 

drives G', which has a bevel cast on to it and is mounted 



134 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



loosely on the extended boss of the wheel J . J runs loosely on 
a central spindle J' , which is secured to the framing and 
shown projecting. Fast on the front roller is the wheel H 
driving H' , which has a bevel cast on to it and runs loosely on 
the spindle J' . J depends for its motion on the axial revolu- 
tions of the arm carrying the bevels R and W , the arm being 
secured by set-screws to the extended boss of J. 

J drives the gain wheel K, which revolves on a short shaft 
secured to the framing, and compounded with K is the gain 




Fig. 70. Platts' Drawing-out Motion 



pinion M driving the spur wheel 0, which is the rotating half 
of the carriage box. The carriage box is constructed like the 
front roller box. The sliding half 0' has cast to its inner face 
two pegs, which engage with a disc keyed to the back shaft P. 
Therefore the revolutions of with box closed equal the 
revolutions of back shaft P. (The relative position of the 
back shaft to the carriage is shown in cross-section Fig. 69). 
P extends the whole length of the mule parallel to rollers and 
carriage, and is usually 1| in. in diameter. Keyed to the back 
shaft P, at convenient distances, are six drums about 5J in. 
in diameter, shown at R, Fig. 72. Secured to each drum are two 



MULE SPINNING 



135 



ropes which are wrapped around in opposite directions, one 
leaving the drum R passes round a guide pulley B, to a 
second pulley C, and then to a tightening rack E, which is 
carried by a bracket fixed to the front of carriage K. The 
other rope passes from R, round guide pulley A, thence to a 
second rack at E. 

A glance at Fig. 72 will show how the revolution of P in the 
direction indicated will draw the mule outwards. Referring 
again to Fig. 70, the alteration of the wheel D would change 



m 



n 



Fast Loose 




Fig. 7] 



the speed of F' and P in the same ratio. To change the ratio 
between F' and P the wheels K or M must be changed. 

Drive of Back and Middle Drawing Rollers. 

Fast to front roller at each side of headstock is the pinion S 
driving the large crown wheel T secured to a short shaft, at 
the opposite end of which is secured the draft change wheel U , 
which drives a change wheel V fast to the end of the back 
roller. Secured to the back and middle roller are two small 
pinions, and in gear with both is a broad carrier shown dotted, 
thus transmitting motion from the back to the middle roller. 

Carriage Draft or Gain. 

This is a term which means the excess outward speed of 
carriage over the surface speed of front bottom roller during 
the same period, and gain can be advantageously introduced 
when spinning medium and fine yarns. Its effect on the yarn 

lo— (5093) 



136 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



is akin to that of jacking previously stated, but its performance 
occurs during that period of the outward run in which the 
front roller is revolving, so that its application is very gradual. 
In some of the lower classes of American and Indian yarns 
and coarse w^arp yarns it is necessary to reverse the conditions 
so far as gain is concerned, and have a roller gain over carriage 
to counteract the milling up or shrinking of yarn due to the 
application of twist to a yarn of large diameter and coarse 




individual fibres, thereby preventing excessive breakage of 
yarn. 

The Drive of Spindles. 

During the outward run the spindles receive their motion 
through individual bands from the tin rollers, which are driven 
by an endless band from grooved pulley N (in Fig. 70) which is 
secured to the rim shaft B. A side elevation of the drive is 
given in Fig. 71. The pulleys 1, 2, 3, and 4 are simple carrier 
pulleys, T is the driven pulley fast on the tin roller shaft. 
The tin roller F' drives the spindle F through the band F'\ 
The pulleys N, T, I, 2, 3, and 4 are treble-grooved on modern 
mules. 



Objects of Drawing-up or Taking-in. 

It must be understood that the outward and inward run of 
the mule are performed by two totally distinct motions known 



MULE SPINNING 137 

as the drawing-out and the taking-in motions. Both motions 
cannot operate simultaneously, and though they are not inter- 
dependent one on the other, they must be arranged on a block 
system, so that the operation of one of the motions ensures 
the disengagement of the other. 

When we consider that the length of a mule of 1,000 
spindles If in. gauge is about 120ft., and the weight of the 
travelling parts, namely, tin rollers, spindles, middle piece and 
gearing, faller mechanism and carriage, bowls and bearer 
brackets is approximately 3 tons, and drawing up of same 
occupies about 3 J sec, and is performed, say, four times per 
minute, this function calls for the most efficient mechanism 
so as to eliminate variation in speed of inward run. 

There are two methods of performing taking-in, Fig. 73, 
through the medium of strap or endless rope from counter 
shaft, transmitting the motion through a friction and cone to 
the scroll shaft, or, Fig. 74, a strap from counter shaft to fast 
and loose pulleys on the side shaft which is geared direct to 
the vertical dra wing-up shaft. 

Taking-in by Friction, Fig. 73. 

At the completion of the outward run the cam has made 
half a revolution, and being connected with the top portion 
of N, rocks the lever on the fulcrum N' . The link M is hung 
on the end of N, and therefore lifted a little. The lower por- 
tion of M, being slotted, there is no movement of L. The 
carriage box lever R fulcrumed at the lower end is also rocked 
a little, due to the upward movement of the projecting bowl 
on the under side of N. This rocldng of R opens the carriage 
clutch (not shown), and also puts the spring P in tension. 
The spring cannot pull the lever L, because the bowl J is under 
the opposite end K. As soon as bacldng-off is completed, J 
moves away from K and allows the spring P to pull upwards 
the lever L, fulcrumed at L' , thus giving a downward move- 
ment to the cone D until it engages with the friction E. 

The pulley 0'' is driven by rope from the counter-shaft. 
The bevel A is keyed to the same shaft as 0" and drives A' , 
which is keyed to the vertical shaft B which revolves in the 
footstep bracket C. D is loosely mounted on B, and has two 
pegs cast on the inside which engage with recesses in the disc 
shown dotted and keyed to shaft B. E is loosely mounted on 



138 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



the shaft B, and cast on the under side is the small bevel 
driving the scroll bevel A'\ which is keyed to the shaft *S^. 

The scrolls F, G, and H are also keyed to S. A band is 
attached to F and passes to the carriage round a half moon 
bracket and back to the other F. The check band passes round 
G, from there under the carriage to a carrier pulley on the 
floor, and thence to the front of carriage ; whilst the band 




A" C 

Fig. 73. Platts' Taking-in Motion 



attached to H passes straight to the coarse scroll on the back 
shaft. 

Therefore, immediately D makes contact with E the shaft 
S starts to revolve, winding the bands on to F and H and 
unwinding the band from G, thus drawing the carriage in. 
The scrolls are so designed to start the inward run at a mini- 
mum speed, increase to a maximum, and then back to a 
minimum so as to hit the back stops lightly. 

When the carriage is on the head, a catch secured to 
the framing is engaged with a stud on the carriage to keep 
the carriage steady whilst backing-off. This catch must be 



MULE SPINNING 



139 



released before the carriage can be drawn up, the lower link 
M' performs this function, receiving its movement from the 
lever L when the dish is engaging. When the carriage is 
alighting at the back stops the cam changes again, making 
another half a revolution, bringing the top of N nearer to the 
centre of 0, this depresses the link M and the lever L, thus 
disengaging the dish D from E. At the same time R is rocked 




Outward Run 



(Dobson & Barlow, Ltd.) 
Fig. 74. Taking-in Motion, Strap Controlled 

back again, engaging the carriage clutch ready for the drawing- 
out operation. 

Description of Fig. 74, Taking-in by Strap. 

When the motion is in the position shown, the strap will be 
on the backing-off pulley A, which is keyed to the shaft E. 
When the mule, which is on the outward run, reaches the head, 
the lever W makes its first change. The bowl P carried by W 
drops about 2 in., thus keeping in contact with the straight 
face of H. The 2 in. movement of W opens the carriage clutch, 
and the mule stands at the head. The strap fork is released, 



140 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



and backing-off takes place. When the fallers lock the long 
lever W makes a second change in the same direction, thus 
placing the bowl P opposite the recess of H, and allowing the 
spring to pull H in the direction of arrow. H is fulcrumed 
about 3 in. from the top end, and therefore gives a dowTiward 
movement to the link G, which, in turn, rocks the lever J as 
shown, and through the connecting link K moves the strap 
fork L, fulcrumed at the lower end, and places the belt on to 
the drawing-up pulley B. This pulley runs loosely on the shaft 
E, and cast on to its spokes is the bevel 0, gearing with bevel D, 
which is keyed on top of vertical shaft. On the lower end is 
another bevel F also keyed to the shaft and gearing with the 
scroll shaft bevel F', rotating it in the direction shown and 
drawing the mule up. 

At the completion of the inward run the adjustable stud H', 
which is carried bj^ the carriage, comes into contact with the 
lower end of H, pushing it far enough to allow the lever W and 
bowl P to return to spinning position, and at the same time 
transferring the belt to the backing-off pulley A. 



References for Fig. 75 



Draft wheel. 

Twist wheel. 

Back change wheel. 

Rim pulley. 2, 3 grooves. 

Gain wheel. 

Shaper wheel. 

Fast rim shaft pulley. 

Loose rim shaft pulley. 

Rim shaft spur wheel. 

Compound carrier. 

Side shaft bevel, ) For 

Bevel and catch wheel. >• jacking 
Carrier spur wheel. ) motion 

Gain pinion. 
Back shaft spur wheel and catch 

box. 
Side shaft bevel. 

hong boss bevel and catch wheel. 
Roller gear catch box. 
Side shaft spur wheel -v 
Change wheel. For 

Worm on end of shaft roller 

Worm wheel. > motion 

Spur wheel and catch whilst 
plate. twisting. 

Z Coupling-piece wheel. •' 

a Band pulley for drawing-up and 
backing-otf side shaft. 



c Backing-off pinion on side shaft. 

d Backing-off cone wheel. 

e 1 Top bevels for upright drawing-up 

/ ] shaft. 

fif Bottom bevel for upright drawing- 
up shaft. 

h Scroll shaft bevel. 

I Spiu- on back shaft. ( Roller turning 

j Click and spur-j Motion . 
wheel, ( whilst winding. 

k Front roller wheel — double or single. 

1 Top carrier wheel, 

m Back roller wheel gearing into draft 

wheel, 
n Back roller wheel driving middle 

roller. 
p Middle roller wheel, 
q Front roller, 
r Middle roller, 
s Back roller. 
t Tin roller pulley. 
u Tin roller. 
V Spindles. 
X Tin roller wheel, 
y Twist worm. 
z Winding drum wheel. 

2 & 5 Leading to back shaft. ) Drawing- 

3 „ ,, carriage >• up 

4 Checking carriage. ) scroll. 




141 



142 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

Delivery of Rollers whilst Winding. 

The motion for driving the rollers during the inward run of 
carriage usually consists of a direct train of three wheels, 
shown in the gearing plan of Dobson & Barlow's mule (Fig. 75). 

A spur wheel i fast to the back shaft drives through a large 
carrier wheel on to the wheel j, loosely mounted on the front 
roller and carrjdng a click catch. There is a ratchet wheel at 
this point (keyed to the front roller) having an extended boss, 
which is recessed to accommodate a spectacle spring which is 
engaged with the click catch. Whilst the roller box is closed 
during the outward run the speed of the front roller keeps the 
click catch disengaged from the ratchet wheel, but as soon as 
the mule starts on the inward run, the direction of rotation of 
i on the back shaft is reversed, causing the catch to engage 
with the ratchet wheel at j, and conveying motion to the front 
roller. The length of yarn delivered whilst winding is usually 
about 4 in. 

Details of Spindles. 

The construction of the spindle, complete with wharve or 
small driving pulley, calls for the highest skilled workmanship. 
Fig. 76 gives an idea of the fine limits to which the spindle is 
made, and are the dimensions given by Dobson & Barlow, 
Ltd. The centre line at each gauge point is the nominal size, 
whilst the lines above and below, which are | in. apart, 
represent the tolerance permissible. The spindle, complete 
with wharve, passes through many operations, i.e. forging, 
rough centring, rough stretching, grinding, glazing, inter- 
mediate centring, wharving, polishing, final stretching, setting, 
testing, and examining. 

Bevel of Spindle. 

The spindles revolve in brass bolster bearings J and foot- 
steps J', Fig. 69, specially designed for easy lubrication and 
retention of the lubricant. J is supported by the bracket H, 
and sustains the spindles at an inclination from the vertical. 
This inclination is termed bevel, and is necessary to facilitate 
the insertion of twist without breakage of ends, but if the 
inclination is too great a portion of the yarn wound on the 
previous draw may be drawn off the spindle, especially when 
the cop is nearing completion. 



¥ 1020" 



•1070 



;^^- 



•1700 



•1735 



•2295 



2330 



;2835^ 
•2870" 



•3285 



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MULE SPTNNIN 



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143 



(Dobson # Barlow^ lAil.) 
Fig. 76. Mule Spindles 



144 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



A table for required length of spindle and bevels for twist 
yarns recommended by Mr. Hardman, of Dobson & Barlow's, 
is given below — 



Spindle Length 


Coiints 


Bevel 


inches 




inches 


17 


30s/ 40s 


4| 


17 


50s/ 60s 


H 


16J 


80s/ 100s 


5i 


15i 


120s/ 150s 


5f 


151 


200s upwards 


Qh 



For soft weft yarns J in. more in each case. 

Spindle Gauge. 

This term is given to the distance from centre to centre of 
each spindle, which may vary according to the class of work 
to be performed. 

For pincops spun for the shuttle of a loom the gauge used is 
1 in. to Ifin., and for twist and doubling weft yarns IJ, ly^, 
or If in. Occasionally the pincops are spun on twist gauge 
mules, but the production cost is increased thereby, as the 
number of cops from the pincop mule against the number 
from a twist gauge mule of the same length will be approxi- 
mately 1400 to 1180. 

Spindle Taper, 

The spindle is essentially tapered from a point just above 
the top bolster of about j\ in. diameter right to the tip, which 
is about J in. diameter. This taper allows the full cops to be 
removed from the spindle with ease, the | in. diameter tip 
puts only a minimum of strain on the yarn during twisting, 
and the -^\ in. at the bolster gives a suitable bearing surface 
combined with a maximum of strength and minimum of 
weight. 

Stretch Lengths. 

Stretch is the term applied to the travel outwards of the 
carriage, and the distance varies according to the class and 
counts of yarn being spun. 



MULE SPINNING 



145 



The full range of stretches for all classes of cotton is from 
72 in. for very coarse yarn to 56 in. for very fine. It is impos- 
sible to obtain this range on one mule, but the stretch is 
sometimes altered 1 in. or 2 in. more or less than that specified 
by the machine makers. It is bad practice to change the 
stretch without making compensative changes to copping, 
winding, and taking-in mechanism. 

The Construction of Carriage. 

The carriage is built in sections of 12 ft. to 15 ft. in length, 
which, when being erected at the mill, are coupled together to 
form one length, the joints being such as to ensure the complete 
length being perfectly straight when built up. The design of 
carriage combines strength and rigidity with a minimum of 
weight, and ensures that the component parts retain their 
respective positions. In these respects the modern steel 
carriage is superior to the wood carriage. 



Roller Traverse. 

The simple traverse is in general use on mules, and comprises 
mechanism which actuates the roving guide rod behind the 

— -" h ki 




Section of Framing 

Fig. 77. Mule Roller Traverse 



(Piatt Bros.) 



drawing rollers in a horizontal direction, the object of this 
motion being to utilize the maximum width of the leather- 
covered top front roller, thereby preventing channelled 
leathers and ensuring a maximum life of the leather, regular 



146 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

drafting, and, obviously, the lowest possible cost of upkeep of 
leather covering. 

Fig. 77 shows a simple traverse motion as made by Piatt 
Bros. & Co., Ltd. Fast to the bottom back roller A at the out 
end of the mule is a worm B, single, double, or treble thread, 
driving the cam wheel C, on the under side of which is cast a 
cam D. Kept in contact with the cam profile is a bowl E, 
carried by a cranked lever F, fulcrumed at F'. The motion 
given to F is communicated through G and G' to the traverse 
rod K, which is either perforated to receive the roving or 
carries wire guides L. 

The spring H is strong enough to exert sufficient power on 
G to keep the bowl E always in contact with cam face, ensuring 
the reciprocation of K. The correct position of guide wires L 
is obtained by the adjusting screw on the connecting rod G. 

The speed of traverse can be increased by substituting the 
single worm B for double or treble worm, or by using a double 
throw cam D. 



PART II 
TEXTILE MATHEMATICS 

CHAPTER I 

Arithmetic 
Tables of Weights and Measures Used in Cotton Spinning 

Table of Weight. 

24 grains = 1 pennyweight (dwt.) 
437-5 ,, =1 ounce (oz.) 

7,000 ,, = 1 pound (lb.) 

Table of Length. 

54 in. = 1 thread = circumference of wrap reel. 
80 threads = 1 lea = 1 skein ==120 yd 
560 threads = 840 yd. = 7 leas = 1 hank. 

Rule for Fmding Counts. 

To find the hank or counts of any given roving or cotton 
yarn ascertain the number of hanks of 840 yd. each there are 
in 1 lb. 

EXAMPLES 

1. What will be the counts of yarn which weighs 60 gr. per 4 leas ? 

Weight per hank = 



Counts 



4 

7000 X 4 
50 X 7 
80s counts 



2. If 15 hank roving were wrapped what would be the weight of 
60 yd. ? 

Weight of 1 hank = -— - gr. 

7000 
Weight of 60 yd. 



15 X 7 X 2 
= I dwt., 9i gr. 



147 



148 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

3. Drawframe sliver weighs 13 dwt. 12 gr. per 6 yd. What is its 
hank ? 

6 yd. weigh . . 324 gr. 

324 

1 hank weighs . . —7- X 840 

D 

^ , 7000 X 6 

Hank = 



324 X 840 
•154 hank 



4. A scutcher lap is -00165 hank ; what is its weight per yard to the 
nearest J oz. ? 

•00165 X 840 yd. = 7000 gr. 
_ 7000 

•*• y • ~ -00165 X 840 ^^' 
7000 



•00165 X 840 X 437-6 * 
= 1155 oz. 

/. to nearest J oz. lap weighs 11| oz. per yard. 

FURTHER EXAMPLES 

1. What length of 74s counts will there be in | oz. ? (1942-5 yd.) 

2. 30 yd. of slubber roving weigh 12 dwt., 2 gr. What is its hank? 

(-862 hank.) 

3. A cop of 60s twist weighs 10 dwt., 7 gr. Ignoring the weight of 
the tnbe, what length is on this cop ? (1778-4 yd.) 

4. The lap from a ribbon lap macliine weighs 25 dwt. per yard ; 
what is its hank ? (-01386 hank.) 

5. If 60 yd. of jackframe roving weigh 1 dwt. 7-25 gr., what is its 
hank? (16 hank.) 

6. What will be the weight of 4 leas of 72s yarn ? (2 dwt. 7-5 gr.) 

After learning the use of constants, which appears next, 
students are advised to check all the above answers by this 
method. Also, students are strongly advised that until they 
become thoroughly conversant with counts calculations they 
should make all their calculations in the ordinary manner, and 
use the constants for no other purpose except the checking of 
answers. 

Note. 

When slivers, rovings, and yarns are being tested the machine 
used for measuring off the correct lengths is called the wrap 
reel, and is made in two forms, one for use in the cardroom, 
which has a cylindrical surface with a circumference of 36 in., 



ARITHMETIC 



149 



and the other for the wrapping of yarns, which has a reel or 
" swift " of hexagon shape with a perimeter of 54 m. (1 2 yd., 
which is known as 1 thread). 

These wrap reels are made with indicators to denote the 




(John Nesbit, Ltd.) 
Fig. 78. Wrap Block for 
Slivers and Rovings 




(Jolin Nesbit, Ltd.) 
Fig. 79. Yarn Wrap Reel 

length being wrapped on, and in the case of the yarn reel a 
traverse motion is also fitted to prevent overlapping of the 
threads. 



150 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 




{John Nesbit, Ltd.) 
Fig. 80. Sensitive Balance 




(John Nesbit, Ltd.) 
Fig. 81. Knowles Balance 



ARITHMETIC 



151 



When the lengths required have been measured on these 
reels, the sHver, roving, or yarn is then carefully weighed on a 
very sensitive balance. 

Constants. 

An explanation of the use of constants will be made simpler 
by the following — 

What are the counts of yarn which weighs x gr. per lea ? 
Weight of 1 hank = 1 x x 
7000 



Counts 



1 X X 
1000 



It will be seen from the above that to find the counts one 
has to divide the length in grains of 1 lea into the constant 
number 1000. 

Constants for other lengths are arrived at in the same 
manner. 

hi using consta7its, therefore, to find the counts, divide the 
weight in grains into the constant number for the length weighed. 

The constants are as follows — 



T.ength 


Constant 


1 hank 


7000 


4 leas 


4000 


1 lea 


1000 


60 yd. 


500 


30 yd. 


250 


6 yd. 


50 


2 yd. 


16-66 


1yd. 


8-33 



EXAMPLES 

Find the comits of 1 lea of yarn weighing 1 dwt. 
Counts = -— - 
= 40s. 



gr. 



II— (5093) 



152 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

2. What is tha weight in grains of 1 yd. of comber shver which is 
•185 hank ? 

Weight = ^ 

= 45 gr. per yd. 

Percentages. 

Although students have already learnt this, it will perhaps 
be as well if some slight revision of the subject were done at this 
stage, as the question of percentages enters into so many 
textile problems. 

EXAMPLES 

1. The total running cost of a certain mill is £1982 10s. per week 
and the wage bill is £274 5s. What percentage of the rimning costs is 
the wage bill ? 

£1982 10s. represents 100% 

■•• ^^'^ «- " jfi^r < ^»« '" 

3185 
= -39650 ^ 1»« 
Wage bill = 13-84% 



2. A waste test is taken on a comber with the following results : 
weight of good sliver = 15 dwt., weight of waste = 2 dwt. 2 gr. What 
is the waste per cent being taken out by this machine ? 

Good sliver = 360 gr. 
Waste = 50 gr. 

Total cotton = 410 gr. = 100% 

. Waste o - 50 X 100 

.. VAaste ,^ ^^^ 

^ 12-20% of waste 

3. A driven pulley shovild make theoretically 275 r.p.m., but there 
is a slippage by the driving belt of 2 per cent. What is its actual 
speed ? 

Theoretical speed == 275 r.p.m. = 100% 

Actual speed =100-2 = 98% 

= 269-5 r.p.m. 



ARITHMETIC 153 

4. The sliver from a certain card weighs 10 lb. 4 oz. and the card is 
taking 7-25 per cent of waste out of the cotton. What weight of cotton 
has passed through this card to produce this amomit of sliver ? 

Waste % '-=-- 7-25 .-. Good sliver =- 100 - 

164 oz. =- 92-75% 

.'. Amount of cotton passed through = 164 x tt^t^^ 

= 176-92 OZ. 

= 111b. 0-82 oz. 



5. Spinners in Bolton are paid 95 per cent above the Bolton Standard 
List which is 23-14 pence per 1000 hanks for 80s twist. What is the 
present-day price per 100 lb. for this yarn ? 

80 
Standard price per 100 lb. of 80s = 23-14 x Yqqq >^ 1^0 

= 185-12 

.*, Present-day price per 100 lb. of 80s = 185-12 

= 360-98 
Or 361 pence per 100 lb. 



195 
100 



It will be seen that the only difficulty is to decide which part 
of the question represents the 100 per cent, and it can be safely 
assumed that whether it be money, cotton, or anything else 
100 per cent represents the original amount. 

FURTHER EXAMPLES 

1. The weekly coal consumption at a certain mill is 46 tons, and it 
is used with 92 per cent efficiency. What weight of coal is wasted per 
week ? Express your answer in tons, cwt., qr., and lb. 

(3 tons 13 cwt. 2 qr. 19 lb.) 

2. When ascertaining a spinner's price list he is allowed 3J per cent 
for stopped time. What length of stoppage does this represent in a 
48-hour working week ? (1 hour 40 minutes 48 seconds.) 

3. 15,000 lb. of cotton is put through the mill under the following 
conditions : waste at blowing room 4 per cent ; at cards 5-5 per cent ; 
in frames 2-5 per cent ; at mule 1-25 per cent. What is the production 
of yarn and the total waste per cent ? (13,102 lb., 12-65 per cent.) 

4. A set of cops weighs 116-5 lb., but 2-25 lb. of this are tubes. 
What percentage of the total is paper ? (1-93 per cent.) 

5. Two bales of cotton weighing 742 lb. and 673 lb. each respectively 
are mixed together. What percentage of the mixing is each of thein ? 

(52-44 per cent and 47-56 per cent.) 



154 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



Loss and Regain. 

All textile materials are capable of absorbing from the 
atmosphere a certain amount of moisture, and in the case of 
cotton the figure is 7-834 per cent. 

The term used for materials of this kind is '* hygroscopic." 
By this is meant that if cotton were dried until it contained 
absolutely no moisture at all, on being again exposed to the 
atmosphere it would again absorb moisture up to this amount. 

Owing to the fact that cotton 
can contain very nearly twice 
this amount of moisture with- 
out altering its appearance, and 
in some cases water is added 
fraudulently, it will be seen 
that a " standard " was neces- 
sary for the trade, so that claims 
could be made against any 
cotton which contained more 
moisture than the " standard " 
allowed. In the case of cotton 
this " standard " is that known 
as a " regain " o/ 8J per cent, 
which means that if 100 lb. 
of absolutely dry cotton, i.e. 
cotton from which every par- 
ticle of moisture has been ex- 
tracted, were exposed to the 
atmosphere, it would absorb 
8 J lb. of moisture ; so that 
cotton is in a " standard " condition ivJien 108 J lb. contains 
8 J lb. of moisture, which by the following calculation will be 
found to be 7-834 per cent. 




Fig. 



(John ^^L'<bit, Ltd.) 
82. Electrically Heated 
Conditioning Oven 



8-5 X 



108-5 
~100~ 



7-834 per cent. 



To find the amount of moisture in cotton a moisture-testing 
oven is used as shown in Fig. 82. 

Heat is applied to get rid of the moisture, but should never 
exceed in the case of cotton 212° F., and the cotton is weighed 
both before, during, and after the test, and the necessary 



ARITHMETIC 



155 



calculation is then made to ascertain the percentage of 
moisture. 

EXAMPLES 

1. A skip of yarn weighing 327 lb. net is tested for moisture as 
follows : 2 lb. of cops are taken from the skip, and when absolutely 
dry are found to weigh 1 lb. 12^ oz. Allowing a " regain " of 8| per 
cent, can any claim be made for excess moisture ? If so, what will be 
the amount if the yarn is 32d. per lb. ? 



Dry weight 




= 


28-5 oz. 


Allowing 8i% regain, 


weight 


= 


^J^^^ X 28-5 - 30-9225 oz 


Original weight 

Correct conditioned weight 

Excess moisture 


— 


32-0 
30-9225 
10775 


Total excess moisture 




= 


1-0775 327 „ 
2 ^ 16 ^^• 






_ 


111b. 


Amount of Claim 




= 


11 X 32d. - £1 9s. 4d. 



2. If a bale of cotton is in its natural state and weighs 745 lb., what 
weight of moisture is in the bale ? (8^ per cent regain.) 

By standard, percentage of moisture = 7-834 

7-834 
.•. Weight of moisture = -jttx- X 745 

= 58-36 lb. 



FURTHER EXAMPLES 

1. What should be the weight of 364 lb. of perfectly dry cotton when 
in its natural condition ? (84 per cent regain.) (394-94 lb.) 

2. What is the weight of moisture in 1 lb. of cotton which contains 
7^ per cent of moisture ? (1-2 oz.) 

3. If 1 lb. of cops is taken from a skip of yarn weighing 320 lb. for 
testing and when dry weighs 14-4 oz., what is the correct conditioned 
weight of the yarn when a regain of 8^^ per cent is allowed ? 

(312-48 lb.) 

Square Roots. 

Although it is perhaps not strictly correct to teach the 
following method of finding the square root of a number (i.e. 
that number which, when multiplied by itself will equal the 
original number) and the correct method will be taught when 
we are dealing with the question of logarithms later, still it is 



156 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



probably as well that each student should know that this can 
be done bv arithmetic. 



EXAMPLES 

1. Find the square root of 379-47, 



29 



384 



3888 



3,79-4: 

1 

279 
261 

1847 
1536 



19-48 



31100 
31104 



1 

.4n5. = 19-48 



2. Find tlie square root of 4: 
6 



124 



.288 



1296 



,42-00,00, I 6-480 
36 

600 
496 

10400 
10304 

9600 



Ans. = 6-48 



From these two examples it will be seen that the method 
adopted is as follows — 

1. Mark off the figures of the number, the square root of 
which is to be found, in pairs from the decimal point, both to 
the right and to the left. 

2. Find the square root of the figure or two figures on the 
immediate left, and put it in the place of both the divisor and 
the quotient. 

3. Proceed as in ordinary division. 



ARITHMETIC 



15' 



4. Bring down the next pair of figures. 

5. Now double the quotient and put it into the position of 
the next divisor, and proceed as in ordinary division, putting 
the number both in the quotient and the divisor. 

6. Continue this until you have got the required number of 
figures in your answer. 



1. Find the square root 



EXAMPLES 


of 99. 


110. 


26-72. 


•365. 


1-961. 



(9-949.) 
(10-488.) 
(5-169.) 
(-6043.) 
(1-400.) 



Square Roots 



No. 


Square 


No. 

1 


Square 


No. 


Square 


No. 


Square 


Root 


Root 


Root 




Root 


-5 


0-707 


27 


5-196 


55 


7-416 


83 


9-110 


•75 


0-866 


28 


5-291 


56 


7-483 


84 


9- 165 


1 


10 


29 


5-385 


57 


7-549 


85 


9-219 


2 


1414 


30 


5-477 


58 


7-615 


86 


9-273 


3 


1-732 


31 


5-567 


59 


7-681 


87 


9-327 


4 


2-0 


32 


5-656 


60 


7-745 


88 


9-380 


5 


2-236 


33 


5-744 


61 


7-810 


89 


9-433 


6 


2-449 


34 


5-830 


62 


7-874 


90 


9-486 


7 


2-645 


35 


5-916 


63 


7-937 


91 


9-539 


8 


2-828 


36 


6-0 


64 


8-0 


92 


9-591 


9 


3-0 


37 


6-082 


65 


8-062 


93 


9-643 


10 


3-162 


38 


6-164 


66 


8-124 


94 


9-695 


11 


3-316 


39 


6-245 


67 


8-185 


95 


9-746 


12 


3-464 


40 


6-324 


68 


8-246 


96 


9-797 


13 


3-605 


41 


6-403 


69 


8-306 


97 


9-848 


14 


3-741 


42 


6-480 


70 


8-366 


98 


9-899 


15 


3-872 


43 


6-557 


71 


8-426 


99 


9-949 


16 


4-0 


44 


6-633 


72 


8-485 


100 


10-0 


17 


4-123 


45 


6-708 


73 


8-544 


101 


10-049 


18 


4-242 


46 


6-782 


74 


8-602 


102 


10-099 


19 


4-358 


47 


6-855 


75 


8-660 


103 


10-148 


20 


4-472 


48 


6-928 


76 


8-717 


104 


10-198 


21 


4-582 


49 


7-0 


77 


8-774 


105 


10-246 


22 


4-690 


50 


7-071 


78 


8-831 


106 


10-295 


23 


4-795 


51 


7-141 


79 


8-888 


107 


10-344 


24 


4-898 


52 


7-211 


80 


8-944 


108 


10-392 


25 


50 


53 


7-280 


81 


9-0 


109 


10-440 


26 


5-099 


54 


7-348 


82 


9-055 


110 


10-488 



158 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

Square Roots Applied to Spinning Calculations. 

Theoretically, rovings and yarns are perfectly round, and 
as the weight of anything with a constant length varies 
directly as its area, and as the areas of circles vary directly 
as the squares of their diameters, it will be seen that the 
weight of equal lengths of given yarns will vary directly as the 
squares of the diameters of these yarns. 

In other words, the counts of yarns vary inversely as the squares 
of the diameter. 

(We already know that the finer the count, i.e. the higher 
the number, the less is the diameter.) 

From the above it will be seen that the basis of measurement 
of yarns depends upon the diameters, so that the diameters will 
vary as the square root of the cou7its. (We already know that the 
coarser the count the greater is the diameter.) 

EXAMPLES 

1. If 60s yarn is -0058 in. diameter, what will be the diameter of 
32s. yarn ? 

Diameter of 32s ^ -0058 x ^^^7=_ 

V32 
- -0079 in. 



Now many of the change wheels on cotton spinning 
machinery have relation to the diameter of the roving or 
yarn in this respect, that they control the building of this 
roving or yarn on to cops and bobbins, and the space taken up 
by the roving or yarn will be determined by their diameter, 
or their counts, so that the number of teeth in these wheels will 
vary as the square root of the counts. 

For example. 

The builder wheel on a mule for 50s counts is 48s, and for 
finer counts a larger wheel would be required, and vice versa. 

What builder wheel would be required for 84s counts. 

Vsi 

wheel required = 48 x — 7=:: 

Vso 

A<^ 9165 
= 62s builder wheel. 



ARITHMETIC 159 

The lifter wheel on a bobbin and flyframe controls the 
speed of movement of the lifter rail, and the coarser the roving 
the larger this wheel will have to be, in order to space out the 
roving correctly. 

If a 19s lifter is required for 10 hank roving, what lifter will 
be required for 16 hank roving ? 



wheel 


required = 


= 19 X 


VIo 

Vl6 






= 19 X 


3162 
4 






- 12-52 lifter wheel 






Say a 


I 13s. wheel. 



The following rules can be applied, therefore — 
To find the builder wheel required on flyframes, mules, or 
ringframes (sometimes called ratchet or star wheel), multiply 
the builder wheel on by the square root of the counts required 
and divide by the square root of the counts on 



, ., , , , . -, , , V counts required 

builder wheel required = wheel on X 



V counts on 



For a flyframe lifter wheel it is — 

Lifter wheel required = wheel on X 



V counts on 

Vcounts required 

and were it not for the fact that special twists are put into 
rovings and yarns, the lifter wheel rule would also be applicable 
to twist wheels. 

Twists in Rovings and Yarns. 

It is necessary to put twist into rovings and yarns for the 
following reasons : In the case of rovings unless twist were 
inserted the strand of cotton would not be strong enough to 
pull off at the next process. 

In yarns twist is inserted to give the yarn its required 
strength, and the amount of twist varies according to the 
articles being manufactured from the yarn. Again these tivists 
will vary as the square roots of the counts. 



160 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



The following formula is used when ascertaining the amount 
of twist required in rovings and j^arns 

T = KVC 

where T = twist per inch required 
K = constant number 
C = counts or hank. 

The constant numbers are as follows — 
Bobbin and Flyframes 



Cotton 


S^-bb-« me'ilt'es ^— 


Jacks 


Indian and Low American 
American and Low Egyptian . 
Good Egyptian and Sea Islands 


1 
1-3 1-2 
10 116 

•7 i -78 

i 


1-5 

1-25 

11 


•9 
•9 



For yarns they are — 

Indian and American Cotton 
Mule twist ..... 

Mule weft ..... 

Ringframe twist .... 

Ringframe weft .... 



Egyptian Cotton 



Mule twist 
Mule weft 
Ringframe twist 
Ringframe weft 



3-75 
3-25 
4-00 
3-25 



3-600 
3-183 
3-606 
3-25 



EXAMPLES 

1. What n\imber of turns per inch mvist be put into 60s Egyptian 
mule twist yarn ? 

T = kVc _ 

T = 3-606 X VeO 
= 3-606 X 7-745 
= 27-93 turns per inch 



2. What would be the correct twist to put into 16 hank roving 
(Egyptian) ? 

T = KVc _ 

T = M X Vl6 
^1-1x4 
= 4-4 turns per inch 



ARITHMETIC 161 

The constants given for bobbin and flyframes would give 
good results, but in actual practise it is usual to find the correct 
amount of twist required, i.e. that amount which will assure us 
that the roving will unwind without breaking at the next 
process ; as any excess means unnecessarily lost production. 

From the above examples, etc., students will see that square 
roots form a very important part of many textile machinery 
and yarn calculations. 

The Numbering of French Counts. 

Seeing that we do a vast amount of trade abroad it is 
necessary that we should understand the foreign system of 
numbering yarns, which is, of course, different to our own. 

Abroad the metric system is used, and the standards 
adopted are the metre (39-37 in.) for length, and the kilogram 
(2-204 lb.) for weight. 

The basis is as follows — 



1000 metre 


weighing 


500 


grm. 


(i 


kilo) = 


No. 


Is 


counts 


2000 „ 


y> 




,, 




= 




2s 


,, 


3000 „ 


,, 




., 




=: 


J, 


3s 


,, 


and so on. 



















This length of 1000 metre is termed a hank, and each hank 
is divided into 10 skeins of 100 metres each. 

The skeins are wrapped on a wrap reel having a perimeter of 
1-425 metres (56-1 in.) making 70 revolutions to a skein. 

From the above it will be seen that the number of hanks {of 
1000 metres each) there are in 500 grm,. is the French count. 

It is essential that we should have a convenient and simple 
way of determining English counts from French, and vice 
versa, and the following will show how this constant number is 
arrived at. 

Let us take Is French counts and find the English equivalent. 

1000 metres = 500 grm. 

2-204 
= (1000 X 39-37) in. = -^ lb. 

= 39370 in. = 1-102 x 7000 gr. 

_3^ y^- = 1-1^2 X 7000 gr. 



162 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

M02 X 7000 X 36 gr. 



1 yd 



39370 



1 u ,1. r u /«.n A ^ MQ2 X 7000 X 36 X 840 
.'. 1 hank English (840 yd.) = S9T70 

7000 X 39370 
•*• ^^gl^^^ ^'°^^^^ = M02 X 7000 X 36 X 840 

= 1-18 English counts. 

From the above we get the following rules — 
To change French counts to English multiply the French 6?/ 1-18. 
To change E7iglish counts to French divide the English by 1-18, 
or multiply the English by -847. 

EXAMPLES 

1. Find the French counts of the following English 25s, 64s. 
French covmts = 25 X -847 = 21-175 counts 



64 X -847 = 54-208 counts 



2. Find the Enghsh counts from the following French 38s, 98s. 
Enghsh covints = 38 X 1-18 = 44-84 counts 



98 X M8 = 115-64 counts 



The following useful English and French equivalents should 
be remembered by all students. 
1 inch = 2-54 centimetres 

1 centimetre = y^^ metre. 

1 metre = 39-37 inches = 3 feet 3f inches = 3-281 ft. 

1000 metres = 1 kilometre = approx. f of a mile. 
1000 grammes = 1 kilogramme = 2-204 lb. 

The Doubling of Yarns. 

This is a very important process in the cotton trade, vast 
weights of yarn being doubled or twisted together for the 
sewing thread and other branches of the manufacturing side 
of the industry. 

It is therefore very important that we should be able to 



ARITHMETIC 1 63 

calculate at once the resultant counts when two or more single 
yarns are doubled together. 

Assume that 60s and 40s single yarns are doubled together, 
what would be the resultant yarn ? 

1 hank (840 yd.) of 60s ^ of a lb. 

1 hank of 40s = — - of a lb. 

40 

.'. 1 hank of the doubled yarn =—- + -— 

bO 40 

_ 40 + 60 

~ 2,400 

100 



resultant counts 



2400 
2400 



100 

= 24s. 
equivalent to 48/2 fold yarn. 

To find the resultant counts when two yarns are doubled 
together, multiply them together for a dividend and add them 
together for a divisor. 

A and B are two yarns doubled together. What will be the 
resultant counts ? 

1 hank of A 
I „ „ B 

1 ,, ,, resultant 



.". resultant counts — . „ 
AB 

which is the rule expressed algebraically. 



i of a lb. 
A 


1 


B " " 


\^i 


B + A 


AB 


A+B 



164 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



We can also make a rule for three counts being doubled 
(gether, A, B, and C as follows^ — 


1 hank of A 


1 
" A 


1 „ „ B 


1 
~ B 


1 55 55 ^ 


1 
~ C 


1 hank of resultant 


AT B^ C 




BC + AC + AB 
ABC 


.*. resultant counts 


ABC 


BC + AC + AB' 




EXAMPLES 



1. Two yams are doubled together and give a resviltant covint of 
22-5 (equivalent to 45/2 fold yarn). One of them is 50s, what is the 
other ? 

-^^ = 22-5 
A + B 

50 X 5 



50 + 5 






50 X -B 


= 


22-5 (50 + B) 


505 


= 


1125 + 22-55 


- 22-55 


= 


1125 


21 5B 


= 


1125 



5 — 40-9 = the other count 

2. Three single yarns 60s, 30s, and 20s are doubled together. What 
is the resultant coTint ? 

ABC 



AB + AC + BC 
_ 60 X 30 X 20 
~ 1800 + 1200 + 600 
_ 36000 
"~ 3600 
= 10s 
Equivalent to 30/3 fold yarn. 



. CHAPTER II 
Mensuration 

A FEW re visional notes and formulae. 

1 . A square has all its sides equal in length and all its angles 
are right-angles (90°). It is also a rectangle. 

2. A rectangle has its two opposite sides equal in length and 
all its angles right -angles. 

3. A parallelogram has its two opposite sides equal in length 
and parallel to one another, and its two opposite angles equal 
to one another. 

4. A rhombus is a parallelogram having all its sides equal, 
but its angles are not right-angles. 

5. A trapezium is a four-sided figure which has two of its 
sides parallel. 

6. A quadrilateral is any four-sided figure. 

Areas are expressed in square measure, i.e. square inches, 
square feet, etc. 

Area of a rectangle = length X breadth. 

Area of a parallelogram = base x altitude. 

The altitude is the perpendicular distance between one of 
the sides taken as base, and the aj)ex. 

Area of a rhombus = half the product of the diagonals. 

7. A triangle is any three-sided figure. 

8. An equilateral triangle is a triangle which has all its three 
sides equal in length and its three angles equal (60° each). 

9.' An isosceles triangle is a triangle having two of its sides 
and two of its angles equal. 

10. A right-angled triangle is a triangle which has one of its 
angles 90°. 

11. An obtuse aiigle is an angle over 90°. 

12. An acute angle is an angle under 90°. 

Area of a triangle = | (base X perpendicular height) 

base X altitude 

•^^ 2 

in other words, it is half of a parallelogram of the same 
dimensions. 

165 



166 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

The three angles of any triangle total 180°, or half the 
number of degrees there are in a circle. 

The Circle. 

The number of times that the diameter of a circle is obtained 
in the circumference is 3-1415926, etc., and the following are 
used according to the degree of accuracy required : 3-1416 or 
'— or 31 . Students can generally be satisfied by using ~. 

This number is denoted by the Greek letter tt (pronounced 

'• pi ")■ 

Radius = \ diameter 

Circumference = 77 X diameter, written ttD or 27rr 

Area of a circle = Tir^ 



but r = 



i^l 



area — 77 x 

I V / 

=. 3-1416 X J X J 
= -7854i)2 



Volumes. 

Volumes are expressed in cubic measure, i.e. cubic inches, 
cubic feet, etc. 

Volume of a rectangular body 

= length X breadth x height 
Volume of a cylinder 

= area of base (77^-) X length 

EXAMPLES 

1. Find the area of a cardroom which is 130 ft. long and 120 ft. 
broad. (15,600 sq. ft.) 

2. A triangle has a base of 7-36 in. and a perpendicular height of 
5-13 in. What is its area ? (18-88 sq. in.) 

3. A cast-iron flyfranie weight has the following dimensions : 10 in. 
long, 5 in. broad, and 6 in. tliick. What is its weight if 1 cub. in. of 
cast-iron weighs -26 lb. ? (78 lb.) 



MENSURATION 167 

4. A steel shaft is 3| in. diameter and 9 ft. in. long. What is its 

weight if steel = -283 lb. per cub. in. ? (310-5 lb.) 

4 
Volume of a ball or sphere = -v:r^- 
o 

5. Find the weight of a 6 in. steel governor ball ; steel = -283 lb. 
per cub. in. (32 lb.) 

6. The tank in the sprinkler tower of a mill has the following inside 
measurements : 15 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and 6 ft. 6 in. deep. 

If the water is filled to within 6 in. of the top and 1 cub. ft. of water 
weighs 62^ lb., what is the weight of water in the tank in tons ? 
Volume of water in tank = 15 X 10 X 6 cub. ft. 
Weight of water in tank = 15 X 10 X 6 x 62-5 lb. 

w • 1.. . . • . 15 X 10 X 6 X 62-5 

Weight ot water in tons = 

= 25' 11 tons 



7. Assume a coiler can measuring 36 in. long by 9 in. diameter to be 
closely packed with cotton sliver, with a core or hole right through the 
centre 2 in. diameter. How many cubic feet of cotton does the can 
contain? (1-26 cub. ft.) 

8. The air in a cotton conveyor pipe 14 in. diameter is found to have 
a velocity of 50 ft. per second. Find the volume of air passing through 
per minute. (3208-3 cub. ft. per minute.) 

9. If the floor space required for one carding engine is 10 ft. 2 in. X 
5 ft. 3 in., what is the total area in square feet of 80 carding engines ? 

(4270 sq. ft.) 

10. From the following particulars calculate the cost of covering a 

card cylinder with wire. The cylinder is 50 in. diameter and 42 in. wide, 

and the fillet is 2 in. wide and costs lOd. per foot. Allow 6 ft. extra 

for finishing off (ending). 

22 
Circmnference of cylinder = -z- X 50 

42 
No. of wraps of fillet to cover cylinder = — = 21 

92 50 

Length of fillet = ^ x — X 2\ = 215it. 

^ 7 12 

Total length of fillet = 275 + 6 = 281 

Cost = 281 X lOd. 

= £11 14s. 2d. 



11. A steam pipe is 4 in. diameter and the metal is fin. thick ; if 

the pipe is of cast-iron which weighs •261b. per cub. in. and is 15 ft. 

long, find its weight. 

22 
Area of pipe (outside) = — X 2 x 2 



7 
-(5093) 



88 
sq. 



108 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 
Area of inside hole 



22 13 13 

7 ^ ¥ ^^ ¥ 



Area of metal 



Weight of pipe 



~ 224 

_ 88 1859 
^ Y~ 224 

957 
= 224 ^^- "' 
_ 957 
~ 224 
= 200 1b. 



X 15 X 12 X -26 



12. Find the amovint of leather required to cover a double boss mule 
top roller if each boss is 2 in. long and 1| in. diameter. 

(18-85 sq. in.) 

13. If the front roller of a flyframe is 1|^ in. diameter and its speed is 
100 r.p.m., what length of roving would be delivered from the roller 
in feet per hour ? (1767 ft. per hour.) 

14. Find the linear velocity in feet per minute of a ringframe driving 
belt. The tin roller shaft makes 840 r.p.m. and is fitted with a 14 in. 
pulley. Neglect slippage. (3080 ft. per minute.) 

15. A card cylinder is 44 in. wide and 50 in. diameter. Find the 
weight of this cylinder if the metal (cast-iron = •261b. per cub. in.) is 
J in. thick. Shaft and spokes weigh 179 lb. 

22 
Area of outside of cylinder = — x 25 x 25 

13750 

= — y- sq. m. 

22 49 49 

T^'Y'' 2 

52822 

13750 52822 

2178 
28 



Area of inside of cvlinder 



Ai-ea of metal 



Weight of cylinder shell 



sq. 



28 



sq. in. 



Total weight 



2178 

28 
890 1b 
890 + 
1069 lb 



44 X -26 lb. 



179 



16. Three pipes are the following inside diameters: 3 in., 4|^Ln., 
and 5 in. What will be the diameter of a single pipe which will have 



MENSURATION lf)9 

80 per cent of the total cross-sectional area of the three pipes 
mentioned ? 

22 3 3 99 



Area of 3 in. pipe 


- T ^ 2- ^ 2 


^-sq.m. 


Area of 4^ in. pipe 


22 9 9 


891 
^gsq.m. 


Area of 5 in. pipe 


22 5 5 

= T ^"2 ^1 


275 
= 14 «q- -• 


Total area of 3 pipes 


99 891 

14 "^ 56 + 

2387 
= 56 Bq.m. 


275 
14 


80% of this area 


2387 80 
56 '^ 100 


2387 341 
70 10 


.*. Radius 


- V34.I X ^ 
= 3-294 in. 




,•. Diameter of required 


pipe 
= 6-588 in. 





34- 



17. A 4 in. steam pipe passes straight round a cardroom 2 ft. from 
the wall. If the room is 130 ft. by 120 ft., what is the total radiating 
surface of the pipe in square feet ? (507 sq. ft.) 

18. A bale of Egyptian cotton weighs 742 lb. and is 50 in. x 30 in. 
X 20 in. What is the weight per cubic foot of the cotton ? 

(42-74 lb. per cub. ft.) 

19. The floor space in the cotton warehouse is 155 ft. by 88 ft. How 
many bales of Egyptian cotton 3 ft. high by 2 ft. 7 in. wide by 1 ft. 10 in. 
broad can be stacked in this warehouse, stood on end ? 

Floor space = 155 ft. x 88 ft. 

155 ft. = 

2 ft. 7 in. = 

.'. No. in line down length of room = 

88 ft. = 

1 ft. 10 in. = 

.*. No. of lines = 

.", Total niimber of bales = 



20. A warehouse is 180 ft. long, 90 ft. wide, and 13 ft. high. Find 
(1) the area of the floor in square feet ; (2) the cubic feet of air in the 
warehouse. (16,200 sq. ft. and 210,600 cub. ft.) 




CHAPTER III 
Algebra 

Simple Equations. 

The student having had lessons in elementary algebra up to 
and including '' simple equations," we will commence by doing 
some revision of this subject. 

Firstly, then, an equation consists of two algebraical 
expressions separated by an equality sign, which shows that 
the two expressions, one on the right side and the other on the 
left side, are equal to one another. An equation which has 
only one unknown quantity (usually denoted by the letter or) 
is called a simple equation. 

Seeing that both sides of the equation are equal to one 
another, it follows that so long as we add to, or subtract from, 
or multiply by, or divide by, the same amount on both sides 
of the equation, the equation will still hold good. Now the 
above fact is of vast importance, as it will be found that in all 
cases by doing one of these four things the equation can be 
simplified and solved. 

EXAMPLES 

1. 6x + 3 = 15. 

Subtract 3 from each side of the equation. 
6:c + 3-3 = 15-3 
fia; = 12 
Divide both sides by G 



2. \x + \x = re - 3. 

Multiply both sides by 6 (to clear the fractions) 

3a; + 2x = 6.r- 18 
Svibtract Qx from both sides 

3x + 2x- 6a; = - 18 
Multiply both sides by - 1 

.-. a; = 18 

It will be seen from the above that any term in an equation 
may be taken from one side to the other by changing its sign, 

170 



ALGEBRA 171 

and we usually get the known quantities on the right side and 
the unloiown quantities on the left side. 
3. 5 (a- - 3) - 4 {x - 2). 

Clear the brackets first 

5x - 15 = 4.T - 8 



Transposing 



5x-4x = -8+15 
.-. X = 1 



3- 


1 (x-l) 


^ 


5 


~Ax 




3 


-Ix -i- 1 


= 


5 


-4x 




- 


Ix + 4a; 


^ 


5 


-7- 


3 




-3.r 


= 


- 


5 






X 


= 


;i 







Find the value of x in the following equations^ 

1. 15^1_l=5.-2 

5 

2. 5-4(a;-3) = x-2{x-l) 

3. 'Ix - 3-35 = 6-4 - ^'2x 

4. 5x-ll + Sx-5 = 6x-l -Sx + U5 

Check your answer in all cases by substituting the value of 
X you have obtained, and seeing if the equation holds good 
under that condition. If not, your answer is wrong. 

All equations can be checked in this manner. 

The Application of Simple Equations to Formulae. 

When the student has mastered simple equations he will be 
able to see that formulae of all types are actually equations, 
and are both formed and solved on algebraic principles. 

For instance, taking a formula with which the student is 
already acquainted — 

In doubled yarns 

Let X = one single yarn and y = the other 

1 hank of a: = - lb. 

X 

u = - lb. 



172 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

,'. 1 liand of resultant = — (- - = ' 

X y xy 

.'. resultant count = -^ . ^^— 1- 

xy ^ v/ 

This is now, of course, a formula. 

Transformation of Formulae. 

Take a well-known formula (the area of a circle). 
A = 77r2 
or 7rr2 ^ ^_ 
To find the value of r, using algebraic principles 
r2 = — 

7T 



V 7T 



This transformation is very important, as we are liable to 
have to find the value of any one of the quantities in this or 
any other formula. 

The circumference of a circle 

C = ttD 

In speed calculations we have learned that 

^, T r 1 • n Speed of Driver x Drivers 

The speed oi a driven pulley = =— -: 

^ X ^ Drivens 

^ Dr X Drs 

or Dn = ^^- . 

Dns 

Any of these terms can now be expressed in relation to the 
others 

Dn X Dns 



Dr ^ 
Drs = 



Drs 
Dn X Dns 



Dr 

and so on. 



ALGEBRA 1 73 



Later the ytudeiits will be taught the following- 

PALS 
H 



33000 

where H = indicated horse-power of a steam engine 
P = pressure per square inch 
A = area of cylinder in square inches 
L = length of stroke in feet 
*S^ = number of strokes per minute. 

This formula can be transformed according to the term of 
which it is required to find the value. 

_ H X 33000 
" ALS 
_ H X 33000 
~ PLS 
H X 33000 
^ ~ PAS 
H X 33000 



>S' 



PAL 



It now becomes clear that no matter what the unknown 
quantity is in any formula, it can be found without difficulty 
by the correct use of algebraic principles. 

EXAMPLES 

1. The line shaft makes 480 r.p.m. and a 28 in. pulley on it drives 
the beater pvilley which makes 1100 r.p.m. ; ignoring slippage, what 
will be the size of the beater pulley to the nearest ^ in. ? 
Call the pulley x. 

og 
Now by the formula 480 x — = 1 100 

X 

480 X 28 
X = 



1100 
X = 12-22 in. 

To the nearest | in. = 12 in, pulley (J 

2. The following formula is used for finding the breaking weight of 
a beam when loaded in the middle 

w =°-^^ 



174 FIEST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

If W = 2750 lb., C = 350, D = 4, and L = 14, find the value of B. 

W X L 



B = 

^ 350 X 4 X 4 
B = 6-875 



G X D^ 
2750 X 14 



From these explanations and examples it will be seen that 
nil textile problems can be simplified to a very marked degree 
by the use of algebra. 

Factors. 

To resolve algebraic expressions into factors, divide the 
expressions by the common factor, enclose the quotient in 
brackets, and place the common factor outside the bracket as 
a coefficient. 

x^ + CiX 
X is common to both expressions 

x^ + ax = x{x + a) 

again 

a^ - a^b 

a^ is common to both expressions 

a^ - a^h = a^{a - h) 

EXAMPLES 

Resolve into factors — 

1. a^-a^. Ans. a- {a-\) 

2. 10c3 - 25c'»d. Ans. Sc^ (2 - 5cd) 

3. 465 -f 6a263 _ 262. Ans. 26^ (263 + 30^6 - 1) 

4. Ip^-lp^ + 14^9''. Ans. Ip^ (1 -;? + 2p2) 
Harder Factors. 

{x + 2)(a; +1) 



Ans. Ip^ (1 

x + 2 
x+ 1 


x^ + 2a: 

+ x + 2 


0-2 + Sx + 2 



ALGEBRA 175 

Which is : the product of the first term of each expression, 
plus the product of the two inner terms and the two outer 
terms added together, plus the product of the second term of 
each expression. Now working conversely, we must work to 
this rule. Example — 

Factorize x^ -\- ^x -\- Q 

Build the factors up as follows — 



again 



Factorize the following — 

1. x^ - I3x + 36 Ans. {x ~ 9) [x - 4). 

2. 2/2 - 2% + 95. Ans. (7 - 19)(i/ - 5). 

3. x^ - I2x + 27 Ans. {x - d){x - 3) 

4. x2 + 8a: + 7. A71S. {x + l){x + 1). 

The Difference of Two Squares. 

The difference of the squares of any two numbers is equal 
to the product of the sum and of the difference of the two 
numbers. 

{a + b){a -b) = a+ b 

a - b 



{X 


){x 


) 


= x^ 








{X 


+ 2){x 


+ 3) 


= x^ 


+ 


5a: 


+ 6 


x^ 


- I5x + 54 










{X 


){x 


) = 


x'- 








{X 


~9){x- 


6) = 


x^- 


15a 


• + 


54 



a'-^ + ab 
- ab-b^ 



vSo in finding the difference of two squares we can use the 
formula 

a^-b^ ^ {a ^ b){a - b) 



176 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNINCx COURSE 







EXAMPLES 


1. 




(27)2 -(14)2 
= (27 + 14) (27- 14) 
= 41 X 13 
= 533 


2. 




(297)2 -(284)2 

= (297 4- 284) (297 -284) 
= 581 X 13 
= 7553 


Find by factors the value of 


1. (51)2- 


• (49)2. 


A71S. (200). 


2. (looiy 


2- 1. 


Ans. (1.002.000) 


3. (9)2- 


(8)2 


Ans. (17). 


4. (12)-^- 


■ (9)-- 


Ans. (63). 


Fractions. 






Fractions 


; in algebra follow the same rules as in arithmetic 


e.g. 




7 + 10 17 
35 35 


and 




i + - 

a^ b 

b -{- a a -j- b 



ab ah 

i.e. find the lowest common multiple of the denominator and 
work exactly as in arithmetic. 

EXAMPLE 



a 2 3 

1. F'imi the value of t — + r 

b a b 



gg - 2b + 3a 

ab 
a2 + 3a - 2b 

ab 



ALGEBRA 177 

Simultaneous Equations. 

When two equations are satisfied by the same values of the 
unknown quantities they are simultaneous equations. 

In order to solve these equations we must obtain an equa- 
tion with only one unknown quantity, and to do this we 
must adopt some means of getting rid of the other unknown 
quantity. 

The following will explain the method adopted — 

{{) 3x + 5ij = oO ) ^ . , ^ ^ 

[ Equation to be solved 
and (2) 4a: + 3?/ - 41 ) ^ 

multiply (1) by 4 = 12a: + 20y = 200 
(2) „ 3 = 12a: + 9y = 123 



subtract (2) from (1) 11?/ = 77 

■: y= 7 

To find the value of x now substitute the value of y found, 
in either (1) or (2). 

(1) 3a: + 35 = 50 
.-. 3a: = 15 

\ Ans. 
and y = 1) 

again (1) 4a^ + 5w = 4 ) _ ^ , , 

^ V / I ^ / Equation to be solved 

and (2) 5a: - 3?/ = 79 ) 

multiply (1) by 3 12a: + \by = 12 

(2) „ 5 25a: - 15i/ = 395 



add (1) to (2) 37a: = 407 

X =11 

substitute a: = 11 in (1) 44 + 5?/ = 4 

^y = - 40 

y 



n\ 



. Ans. 
and X 

Note. When eliminating if the signs are alike subtract, if 
the signs are unlike add 



178 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

A further example— 

a; + 2y = 13 

and--- = 1 

Eliminate fractions by miTltiplying (2) by 15 

10a; - 3i/ = 15 
Multiply (1) by 10 lOrc + 20?/ = 130 



Subtract (1) from (2) -23?/ =. - 115 

^/ = 5 

Substitute in (I) .c + 10 =- 13 

cr = 3 



, A US. 

and 2/ = 5 

EXAMPLES 

Solve the following equations — 

1. 5a; =: 7?/ -21 
•2lx-9y = 75 

2. 5x-ly =^ n \x = -2 

18.T = I2y /2/ = -3 

3. 4:x-y ==^ I /x = 2 






|+'f=4 /.^7 



-.r-i/..-- 7 U = 5 



4x -\- 5y = \ y = — 4 

Always check your answers by substitution. 



CHAPTER IV 

Graphs 

The use of graphs and squared paper should be thoroughly 
appreciated by the student. In making periodical records of 
any description, the fluctuations or steadiness of the records 
is shown more plainly by graphs than by tabulated data. 

Two quantities, results of a number of experiments or 
observations, can best be represented by the use of squared 
paper graphs. 

By commencing at the lowest left-hand corner of the 
squared paper, the lowest horizontal line may be taken as one 
axis, OX, or the axis of abscissae, the vertical line on the 
extreme left may be taken as the other axis, OF or the 
axis of ordinates. 

After obtaining the results of observations or experiments, 
a scale is decided upon and the points plotted out on the 
square paper. 

EXAMPLE I 

In the following table the price of raw cotton, on 1st July, 1914, is 
taken as basis (100), and the price at the various dates given is 
calculated as a percentage of the basis figure. 

Example No. 1 shows a graph that 
may be kept for cotton price fluctua- 
tions, or production fluctuations, and 
are generally adopted in mills and 
workshops where an efficient system 
of records is kept (Fig. 83) . 

There is another type of graph, 
however, where the reading on OX 
has a direct ratio on Y . The results 
of experiments or observations being 
taken and the points plotted on the 
squared paper, it is found on joining 
the points that a straight line is 
formed. This shows that the value 
of X has a direct bearing on the value of Y, and from this 
we can obtain an " equation of a straight line," which is — 
y =z ax -{- h 
179 





Price 


July, 1914 


100 


July, 1915 


79 


July, 1916 


133 


July, 1917 


292 


July, 1918 


349 


July, 1919 


315 


July, 1920 


405 


July, 1921 


118 


July, 1922 


207 



Let OX = Price, 
and OY ^ Date. 



180 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



Having obtained various results of x and y, by substituting 
the numbers for x and y, and forming two equations, we are 
able, by simultaneous equations, to find the constant values 
of " a " and " 6." This is done by the results in the following 
examples. 



7922-- 



7921 



^f920^- 



19U 



^J9r8 

K fS76 



19f5-' 



1914-'- 



iii: 



i;iii 



\i^ 



'I 



W 200 300 

Axis of Abscissae 
Fig. 83 



400 



500 X 



EXAMPLE II 

The distance across the flats, and the diameters of 
Whitworth nuts are given — • 



number of 



Diameter of screw . 
Distance across flats 



\ in. 
I in. 



1 in. 
Uin. 



Uin. 
2 in. 



2f in. 



Plot the graph and fuid the equation (Fig. 84). 
Let OX = diameter of screw. 

OY ~ distance across screw. 
Scale OX r^ 8 squares == ^ in. 
OY — '8 squares — I in. 



GRAPHS 



181 



As tiie result of the plotting is a straight line, then the equation is 

q = ax + b. 

.'. I = a X -^ + b 
If = a X 1 + & 



I = la .-. a = 1| 

And If == 1| + 6 .'. 6 .^ If - 1^ = I. 
From this we get the r\ile 

y — l^x + b, or 
The distance across flats of a hexagon nut is one and a half times the 
diameters of the screw + |^ in. 



4^ 

to 
o 

"^ 1" 

o 
CO 2 

Ho 



/" 



K- 



"^ 



;^?; 



:i; 




^i 



%¥- 



n 



Diamsten of Screw 
FiCi. 84 



2¥ 



3" 



FURTHER EXAMPLES 

3. The follomng table shows how the width of a sunk key varies 
dth the diameter of a shaft. 



Diameter of shaft 
Width of key 



lin. 
% in. 



3 in. 



4 in. 



Prove the law is -^ width of key = 



Diameter of shaft 



182 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



4. The table below gives comparative numbers of English and 
French counts. You are required to plot the curve and find the law 
for transforming French to English. 



English 
French 



5 
4-23 



10 
^47 



20 
16-94 



30 
25-41 



40 
33-8 



60 
50-82 



A71S. English = French x 1-18. 



5. The following are the weights in grains of 1 lea of yarn and 
the counts. 



Weight in grains of 1 lea 
Counts of yarn . 



6i 
160 



8 
125 



10 
100 



25 
40 



50 
20 



Plot the graph and find the weight of 80s counts. 



6. The following are relative weights of equal volume of water and 
cotton seed oil. 



Water . 
Cotton seed oil 



1 

-925 



5 
4-625 



•325 



12 
111 



Plot the graph and find the law. 



CHAPTER V 
Logarithms 

Indices. 

The index or power of any expression (say, x) is indicated as 
follows — 

x^ which means 1 X x x x {i.e. twice). 

x^ ,, ,, Ixxxxxxxxxx (i.e. 5 times) 

x^ ,, ,, I X X, n times. 

x^ ,, ,, I X X, o times = 1. 

-y/x = square root of x or the number which raised to the 
power 2 would equal x. 

This can also be expressed as a fractional index as follows — 

■\/x = x^ 

^x = x^ 
_ 1_ 
'Vx = x^, and so on. 
The reciprocal of a number is unity (1) divided by that 
number. 

The reciprocal of 10 = — or 0-1 or 10'^ 

„ a; = - or x-^ 

X 

Now 10=^ = 1 X 10 X 10 X 10 = 1000 

102 = 1 X 10 X 10 = 100 

101 = 1 X 10 = 10 

10" = 1 X (10 no times) = 1 

io-. = 4 =.01 =^, 



: 3— (5093) 



183 



184 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



The base 10 is the one used in common logarithms, which are 
those generally used, so that the logarithms of numbers will 
be as follows — 



Number 



Logarithm 



Between 10,000 


and 1,000 


Between 4 and 3 snch as 3^7642 


1,000 




100 


3 „ 2 „ 2-2895 


100 




10 




2 „ 1 


1-3276 


10 




1 




1 „ 


•4784 


1 




•1 




„ -1 


, -1-9628 




1 


•01 




-1 „ -2 


, -2-7346 




01 


•001 




-2 „ -3 


, -3-2291 


j> 


001 


•0001 




-3 „ -4 


, -4^5725 



A common logarithm, therefore, is in two parts, a whole 
number and a decimal. 

The whole number is called the characteristic. The decimal 
part is called the 7nantissa. 

The characteristic is always one less than the number of digits 
in the number, when the number is greater than unity, and is also 
positive. 

The characteristic is always one more than the number of 
cijihers or noughts after the decimal point wheyi the number is 
less than unity, and is also negative. 

The mantissa is found from the table of logarithms and is 
always positive. 

To indicate the negative sign of the characteristic, it is 
written over, not in front, of the figure. 

Seeing that logarithms are actually algebraical indices they 
follow the same rules, so that in working calculations adopt the 
following methods— 

To Multiply. Add the logarithms of the numbers together 
and extract the antilogarithm. 

To Divide. Subtract the logarithm of the divisor from the 
log of the dividend and extract the antilogarithm. 

To Find the Power of a Number. Multiply the logarithm 
of the number by the index and extract the antilogarithm. 

To Find the Root of a Number. Divide the logarithm of the 
number by the root and extract the antilogarithm. 

In order to avoid the danger of using the wrong table 



LOGARITHMS 
Logarithms 



185 








1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


12 3 4 


5 


6 7 8 9 


10 


0000 


0043 


0086 


0128 


0170 


0212 


0253 


0294 


0334 


0374 


4 9 13 17 
4 8 12 16 


21 
20 


26 30 34 38 
24 28 32 37 


11 

12 


0414 


0453 


0492 


0531 


0569 


0607 


0645 


0682 


0719 


0755 


4 8 12 15 
4 7 11 15 


19 
19 

18 
17 


23 27 31 35 
22 26 30 33 


0792 


0828 


0864 


0899 


0934 


0969 


1004 


1038 


1072 


1106 


3 7 11 14 
3 7 10 14 


21 25 28 32 
20 24 27 31 


13 


1139 


1173 


1206 


1239 


1271 


1303 


1335 


1367 


1399 


1430 


3 7 10 13 
3 7 10 12 


16 
16 

15 
15 

14 
14 


20 23 26 30 
19 22 25 29 


14 


1461 


1492 


1523 


1553 


1584 


1614 


1644 


1673 


1703 


1732 


3 6 9 12 
3 6 9 12 


18 21 24 28 
17 20 23 26 


15 


1761 


1790 


1818 


1847 


1875 


1903 


1931 


1959 


1987 


2014 


3 6 9 11 
3 5 8 11 


17 20 23 26 
16 19 22 25 


18 
17 


2041 


2068 
2330 


2095 


2122 


2148 


2175 


2201 


2227 


2253 


2279 


3 5 8 11 

3 5 8 10 


14 
13 

13 

12 

12 
11 

11 
11 

11 


16 19 22 24 
15 18 21 23 


2304 


2355 


2380 


2405 


2430 


2455 


2480 


2504 


2529 


3 5 8 10 
2 5 7 10 


15 18 20 23 
15 17 19 22 


18 


2553 


2577 


2601 


2625 


2648 


2672 


2695 


2718 


2742 


2765 


2 5 7 9 
2 5 7 9 


14 16 19 21 
14 16 18 21 


19 


2788 


2810 


2833 


2856 


2878 


2900 


2923 


2945 


2967 


2989 


2 4 7 9 
2 4 6 8 


13 16 18 20 
13 15 17 19 


20 

21 
22 
23 
24 

25 


3010 


3032 


3054 

3263 
3464 
3655 

3838 


3075 


3096 

3304 
3502 
3692 

3874 


3118 


3139 

3345 
3541 
3729 
3909 


3160 

3365 
3560 
3747 
3927 


3181 


3201 


2 4 6 8 


13 15 17 19 


3222 
3424 
3617 

3802 


3243 
3444 
3636 

3820 


3284 
3483 
3674 
3856 


3324 
3522 
3711 

3892 


3385 
3579 
3766 
3945 


3404 
3598 
3784 
3962 


2 4 6 8 
2 4 6 8 
2 4 6 7 
2 4 5 7 


10 

10 

9 

9 

9 

8 
8 
8 
7 

7 

7 
7 
6 
6 

6 

6 
6 
6 
5 


12 14 16 18 
12 14 15 17 
11 13 15 17 
11 12 14 16 


3979 


3997 


4014 


4031 


4048 


4065 


4082 


4099 


4116 


4133 


2 3 5 7 


10 12 14 15 


26 
27 
28 
29 


4150 
4314 
4472 
4624 


4166 
4330 

4487 
4639 


4183 
4346 
4502 
4654 


4200 
4362 
4518 
4669 


4216 
4378 
4533 
4683 


4232 
4393 
4548 
4698 


4249 
4409 
4564 
4713 


4265 
4425 
4579 

4728 


4281 
4440 
4594 
4742 


4298 
4456 
4609 
4757 


2 3 5 7 
2 3 5 6 
2 3 5 6 
13 4 6 


10 11 13 15 
9 11 13 14 
9 11 12 14 
9 10 12 13 


30 

31 
32 

n 


4771 


4786 


4800 


4814 


4829 


4843 


4857 


4871 


4886 


4900 


13 4 6 


9 10 11 13 


4914 
5051 
5185 
5315 


4928 
5065 
5198 
5328 


4942 
5079 
5211 
5340 


4955 
5092 
5224 
5353 


4969 
5105 
5237 
5366 


4983 
5119 
5250 
5378 


4997 
5132 
5263 
5391 


5011 
5145 
5276 
5403 


5024 
5159 
5289 
5416 


5038 
5172 
5302 
5428 


13 4 6 
13 4 5 
13 4 5 
13 4 5 


8 10 11 12 
8 9 11 12 
8 9 10 12 
8 9 10 11 


35 


5441 


5453 


5465 


5478 


5490 


5502 


5514 


5527 


5539 


5551 


12 4 5 


7 9 10 11 


36 
37 
38 
39 


5563 

5682 
5798 
5911 


5575 
5694 
5809 
5922 


5587 
5705 
5821 
5933 


5599 
5717 
5832 
5944 


5611 
5729 
5843 
5955 


5623 
5740 
5855 
5966 


5635 
5752 
5866 
5977 


5647 
5763 

5877 
5988 


5658 
5775 

5888 
5999 


5670 

5786 
5899 
6010 


12 4 5 
12 3 5 
12 3 5 
12 3 4 


7 8 10 11 
7 8 9 10 
7 8 9 10 
7 8 9 10 



The copyright of that portion of the above table which gives the logarithms 

of numbers from 1000 to 2000 is the property of Messrs. Macmillan and 

Company, Limited, who, however, have authorized the use of the form in 

any reprint published for educational purposes. 



186 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



Logarithms 








1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 




2 


3 


4 


5 

5 
5 


6 


7 


8 9 


40 


6021 6031 6042 6053 6064|6075 


6085 6096 6107 


6117 




2 


3 


4 


6 


8 


9 10 


41 


6128'6138'6149 6160'6170'6180'6191 620l'6212 6222 




2 


3 


4 


6 


7 


8 9 


4!2 


6232'6243,6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314;6324 




2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 9 


43 


6335'6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425 




2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 9 


44|6435J644J 6454 6464 6474|6484j6493 6503 6513 6522 




2 


3 


4 


5 
5 
5 


6 


7 


8 9 


45|6532'6542 6551 6561 657l|6580'6590 


6599 6609 6618 




2 


3 


4 


6 


7 


8 9 


46 


6628 


6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 


669367026712 




9 


3 


4 


6 


7 


7 8 


476721 


6730 6739 6749,6758.6767 6776 6785!6794|6803 




2 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 8 


486812 


6821 6830 6839 6848:6857 6866 6875l6884!6893 




•> 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


7 8 


49 
50 


6902 


6911 6920|6928|6937 


6946J6955 6964 6972 6981 




2 


3 


4 


4 
4 
4 


5 


6 


7 8 


6990 


6998 


7007 


7016 


7024 


7033 


7042 


7050 


7059 


7067 




2 


3 


3 


5 


6 


7 8 


51 


7076 


7084 


7093 


7101 


7110 


7118 


7126 


7135 


7143 


7152 




2 


3 


3 


5 


6 


7 8 


52 


7160 


7168 


7177 


7185 


7193 


7202 


7210 


7218 


7226 


7235 




2 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 7 


53 


7243 


7251 


7259 


7267 


7275 


7284 


7292 


7300 


7308 


7316 




2 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


6 7 


54 


7324 


7332 


7340 


7348 


7356 


7364 


7372 


7380 


7388 


7396 




2 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


6 7 


55 
56 


7404 


7412 


7419 


7427 


7435 


7443 


7451 


7459 


7466 


7474 




2 


2 


3 


4 
4 


5 


5 


6 7 


7482 


7490 


7497 


7505 


7513 


7520 


7528 


7536 


7543 


7551 




2 


2 


3 


5 


5 


6 7 


57 


7559 


7566,7574 


7582 


7589 


7597 


7604 


7612 


7619 


7627 




o 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 7 


58 


7634 


7642 7649 


7657 


7664 


7672 


7679 


7686,7694 


7701 






2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 7 


59 


7709 


7716 


7723 


7731 


7738 


7745 


7752 


7760 


7767 


7774 






2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 7 


60 


7782 


7789 


7796 


7803 


7810 


7818 


7825 


7832 


7839 


7846 






2 


3 


4 

4 


4 


5 


6 6 


61 


7853 


7860 


7868 


7875 


7882 


7889 


7896 


7903 


7910 


7917 






2 


3 


4 


5 


6 6 


62 


7924 


7931 


7938 


7945 


7952 


7959 


7966 


7973 


7980 


7987 






2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 6 


63 


7993 


800018007 


8014 


8021 


8028 


8035 


8041 


8048 


8055 






2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 6 


64 
65 


8062 


8069,8075 
81368142 


8082 
8149 


8089 


8096 
8162 


8102 
8169 


8109 


8116 


8122 






2 


3 


3 
3 
3 


4 


5 


5 6 


8129 


8156 


8176 


8182 


8189 






2 


3 


4 


5 


5 6 


66 


8195 


8202 8209 


8215 


8222 


8228 


8235 


8241 


8248 


8254 






2 


3 


4 


5 


5 6 


67 


8261 


8267,8274 


8280 


8287 


8293 


8299 


8306 


8312 


8319 






2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


5 6 


68 


8325 


8331 


8338 


8344 


8351 


8357 


8363 


837018376 


8382 






2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 6 


69 
70 

71 


8388 


8395 


8401 


8407 


8414 


8420 


8426 


8432 


8439 


8445 






2 


2 


3 
3 


4 


4 


5 6 


8451 


8457 


8463 8470 


8476 


8482 


8488 


8494 


8500 


8506 






2 


2 


4 


4 


5 6 


8513'8519'8525 


8531 


8537 


8543 


8549 


8555 


8561 


8567 






2 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 5 


72 


8573 


8579;8585 


8591 


8597 


8603 


8609 


8615|8621 


8627 






2 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 5 


73 


8633 


863918645 


8651 


8657 


8663 


8669 


8675!8681 


8686 






2 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 5 


74 
75 
76 


8692 
8751 


8698 


87048710 


8716 


8722 


8727 


8733 


8739 


8745 






2 


2 


3 
3 
3 


4 


4 


5 5 


8756 


8762 


8768 


8774 


8779 


8785 


8791 


8797 


8802 






2 


2 


3 


4 


5 5 


8808 


8814 


8820 


8825 


8831 


8837 


8842 


8848 


8854'8859 






2 


2 


3 


4 


5 5 


77 


8865 


8871 


8876 


8882 


8887 


8893 


8899;8904!8910;8915 






2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 5 


78 


8921 


8927 


8932 


8938 


8943 


8949 


8954!8960!8965!8971 






2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 5 


79 
80 
81 


8976|8982 


8987 


8993J8998 


9004 


9009 9015 


9020 9025 






2 


2 


3 
3 
3 


3 


4 


4 5 


903l|9036 9042 


9047 


9053'9058 


9063 


9069 


90749079 






2 


2 


3 


4 


4 5 


9085!9090!9096 9101 


9106!9112 


9117 


9122 


91289133 






2 


2 


3 


4 


4 5 


82 


9138 9143 9149 9154 9159:9165 


9170 


9175 


9180!9186 






2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 5 


83 


919119196 92019206 921219217 


9222 


9227 


9232 


9238 






2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 5 


84 


9243 


,9248 


9253 


9258 


9263 


9269 


9274 


9279 


9284 


9289 






2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 5 



LOGARITHMS 



187 



LOGARITHMS 








1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


12 3 4 


5 

3 


6 7 8 9 


85 


9294 


9299 


9304 


9309 


9315 


9320 


9325 


9330 


9335 


9340 


112 2 


3 4 4 5 


86 
87 
88 
89 


9345 
9395 
9445 
9494 


9350 
9400 
9450 
9499 


9355 
9405 
9455 
9504 


9360 
9410 
9460 
9509 


9365 
9415 
9465 
9513 


9370 
9420 
9469 
9518 


9375 
9425 
9474 
9523 


7380 
9430 
9479 
9528 


9385 
9435 
9484 
9533 


9390 
9440 
9489 
9538 


112 2 
112 
112 
112 


3 

2 
2 

2 


3 4 4 5 
3 3 4 4 
3 3 4 4 
3 3 4 4 


90 


9542 


9547 


9552 


9557 


9562 


9566 


9571 


9576 


9581 


9586 


112 


3 3 4 4 


91 
92 
93 
94 


9590 
9638 
9685 
9731 


9595 
8643 
8689 
9736 


9600 
9647 
9694 
9741 


9605 
9652 
9699 
9745 


9609 
9657 
9703 
9750 


9614 
9661 
9708 
9754 


9619 
9666 
9713 
9759 


9624 
9671 
9717 
9763 


96289633 
96759680 
97229727 
97689773 


112 
112 
112 
112 


2 

2 

2 
2 

2 


3 3 4 4 
3 3 4 4 
3 3 4 4 
3 3 4 4 


95 


9777 


9782 


9786 


9791 


9795 


9800 


9805 


9809 


9814 


9818 


112 


3 3 4 4 


96 
97 
98 
99 


9823 
9868 
9912 
9956 


9827 
9872 
9917 
9961 


9832 
9877 
9921 
9965 


9836 
9881 
9926 
9969 


9841 
9886 
9930 
9974 


9845 
9890 
9934 
9978 


9850 
9894 
9939 
9983 


9854 
9899 
9943 
9987 


9859 
9903 
9948 
9991 


9863 
9908 
9952 
9996 


112 
112 
112 
112 


2 

2 

2 
2 


3 3 4 4 
3 3 4 4 
3 3 4 4 
3 3 3 4 



students are advised to use only the logarithm table, and for 
that reason only the logarithm table is put in this work. 

To find the antilogarithm, work in the logarithm table the 
reverse way, i.e. find the mantissa in the table and extract 
the arithmetical value. 



EXAMPLES 



1 Multiply 17-23 by 16-02. 

Log. of 17-23 = 1-2363 
Log. of 16-02 = 1-2046 



(17 is between 10 and 100) 



Add 2-4409 

Antilog. 2-4409 = 276 (Characteristic 2 is between 100 

and 1000) 
Ans -= 276 

To find the log. of 17-23. 

Look in log. table opposite 17 and under 2 then add the log. under 3 
in the final columns, i.e. 

2355 + 8 = 2363 



2. Divide -2743 by -0658. 

Log. of -2743 = 1-4383 

Log. of -0658 = 2-8182 



Subtract 
Antilog. of -6201 



Ans. — 



•6201 
417 (between 1 and 10) 
4-17 



188 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



3. Find (14-59)3. 

Log. of 14-59 
Multiply by index 



Antilog. 3-4920 

Arts. 



1-1640 
3 

3-4920 

3104 

3104 



(between 1000 and 10,000) 



4. Find V29-46. 

Log. of 29-46 
Divide by root 



Antilog. -7346 



Ans. 



= 1-4692 
211-4692 
•7346 
= 5427 
= 5-427 



(between 1 and 10) 



USEFUL INFORMATION 
Electricity. 

A watt is the practical unit of electrical power. 

Watts = amperes x volts. 

1000 watts = 1 kilowatt. 

T^, , . 1 , volts X amperes 

Llectricai horse-power = 

^ 746 

Unit of electricity = 1 kilowatt hour. 
Cotton Spinning Machinery Horse-powers. 



1 Double opener 




. 10 h.p. 


1 Single scutcher 




5 „ 


1 Card . 




- -75 „ 


12 Deliveries drawframe 






40 Slubber spindles 






80 Intermediate spindles 






100 Roving and jack spindles 






120 Twist mule spindles, 9500 r.p. 


m. 1 ,, 


150 Weft mule spindles, 9500 r.p.r 


n. 1 ,, 


Temperatures at atmospheric pressure — 






Freezing Point 


Boihng Point 


Fahrenheit 


32° 


212° 


Centigrade 


0° 


100° 


Reamur .... 


0° 


80° 



LOGARITHMS 



189 



To change Centigrade to Fahrenheit multiply by 1-8 and 
add 32. 

To change Fahrenheit to Centigrade subtract 32 and then 
divide by 1-8. 

Weights of Materials. 







lb. 


lb. 


1 cub. ft 


Lead . 


710 


1 cub in. . -41 




Copper 


550 


. -32 




Brass . 


520 


. -3 




Steel . 


490 


. -283 




Wrought iron 


480 


. -28 




Cast iron 


450 


. -26 


„ 


Aluminium . 


160 


. -09 




Concrete 


126 




,, 


Brick work . 


112 




„ 


Coal . 


80 




„ 


Water. 


62-5 




,, 


American Cotton . 


28 


500 lb. bale. 


5' 


Egyptian cotton . 


38 


750 lb. bale. 


General Information. 






1 fathom 


. = 6 ft. 






1 mile 


. = 1760 y( 


i. = 5280 ft. 


1 knot 


. = 6080 ft 


. per hr. 


= 1-15 miles per 


60 miles per hr. . = 88 ft. per sec. 




1 ton . 


. = 2240 lb 


. 





1 gal. of fresh water = 10 lb. 

1 in. deep of rain = 5-2 lb. per sq. ft. = 100 tons per acre. 

1 cub. ft. salt water = 64 lb. 

The unit of work = 1 lb. weight raised 1 ft. high. 

The British unit of heat is the heat necessary to raise the 
temperature of 1 lb. of water through a difference of V 
Fahrenheit. 

Atmospheric pressure is 14-7 lb. per sq. in. 



PART III 
TEXTILE DRAWING 

Introduction to Machine Drawing. 

Many students are of the opinion that the subject " Machine 
Drawing " is unnecessary in the " Textile Technology " courses, 
but as the subject is taught to enable textile students intelli- 
gently to interpret drawings and diagrams of textile machinery, 
and not solely that he may become proficient in the art of 
draughtsmanship, it will be seen that the subject can be really 
useful to him. 

The student should provide himself with a drawing board, 
tee square, a 45° and a 60° set square (celluloid preferred). 
A set of instruments, comprising pencil compasses, ink 
compasses, drawing pen, and dividers. For mechanical 
drawing a pencil marked HH, and for freehand drawing a 
pencil marked HB. The HH pencil should be sharpened with 
a chisel point, and the HB pencil with a round point. A good 
rule and a set of scales are also required, but the scales may be 
made by the student by following the instructions in this book. 

In making a working drawing, it is not only necessary to 
draw it to scale, but it should also be fully dimensioned. A 
poor drawing well dimensioned is better to work to than a 
good drawing badly dimensioned. Keep your dimensions away 
from the drawing as much as possible to enable you to show 
them as clearly as possible. 

Principles of Projection. 

As a drawing is used to convey the ideas to the workman 
engaged in making the machine or detail, it is necessary to 
show all the necessary detail. 

There are two types of drawings. 

1. Isometric drawings. 

2. Drawings with plan and elevations. 

An isometric drawing is one which shows all that can be 
seen from a given point. One view only is required. 

191 



192 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



Drawings with plan and elevations shows the detail of 
machine from every side, and each plan or elevation is viewed 
at right-angles to the face which you are drawing. In making a 
drawing of this description it is necessary to make at leSst 
two views of the object which you are drawing 




Fig. 85 

Fig. 85 shows an object in isometric view ov perspective being 
projected to its different elevations. It will be seen that the 
object IS always between the eye and the drawing. Side eleva- 
tion A, IS viewed in direction of arrow A, end elevation B is 



TEXTILE DRAWING 



193 




% dia. hole 



rad. 
S\ot%\on^}iw\de 



Fig. 86 
Draw three views of this bracliet. 





"'■ \ '■ ' '^ 



Fig. 87 



194 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



^1 



76 



I'xyzs/ot k-Q, 



/¥' 




2^4- 




_,,__.., 


c 


\; 








,i— 












Fig. 88 
Given views A and B, draw view C, looking in direction of arrow C. 



TEXTILE DRAWING 



195 




1 -1 



.^^ 



iii£ 



I ) 



Li: 



Fig. 89 
Given views A and B, draw view C, looking in direction of arrow C. 



196 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



viewed in direction of arrow B, and plan C in direction of 
arrow C. All lines that can be seen from the outside are 
shown in full and lines that cannot be seen, such as the bore 
in end elevation B, are shown in dotted. 

The student should make the dots as even as possible, say, 
about J in. long, with about 3V in. between each dot. All 
centre lines and dimension lines should be thin chain lines, i.e. 
a line about 2 in. long, a space about yg in., a dot, a space j^ in., 
and another line 2 in. long, to be repeated to full length of hne. 
Dimension lines to be terminated at each end by a clear 
arrow head. All dimensions should be shoA\Ti very clearly. 

When a detail is complicated, too many dotted lines are apt 
to confuse the workman. In cases like this an extra view is 



12 Actual OP 
J Full Size. 



riFoot 



JAK. 



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 b Half Size or 
.■■l'lil.|i''''l'''''''''l'''''''''''''''''l'l'l ^^"<=^^«s=^f'°°t 



3Feet 



2 Feet 



1Foot 



2-5%^ 



'1 23456 7 891011 [lZ Quarter Size or 
ilililililililJ 3rnches=1Foot 




Fig. 90. Scales 



added, called a sectional elevation, which is a view showing the 
object cut through at a definite point, and drawn viewed at 
right-angles to the face that has been cut. 

In the examples Figs. 87, 88, 89, no instructions are given, 
but the student will be able to follow how the drawing has been 
built up. Some of these examples are the Examination Papers 
set by the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes. 

Scales. 

The use of scales is necessary when a drawing has to be made 
of some object that is too big to be drawn full size on the 
drawing paper. 

To prepare a scale the following method is adopted. Scale 
vequired half size 

Six inches actual size will represent 1 ft. on the scale. 
Divide this 6 in. into twelve equal parts, each of these repre- 
senting 1 in. If each one of these latter parts are again divided 



TEXTILE DRAWING 



197 



into eight equal parts, each would represent ^ in., from which 
we may get | in., J in., or J in. 

One portion only representing 1 ft. need be divided uj) as 
stated above, as will be seen in the following illustration. 

By a little care and thought on the part of the student any 
scale can be made by following the principles outlined above. 

First choose the scale required, then divide the first foot into 
twelve equal parts to represent inches, then the inches into 



SJ 



2d 



^ 







. i^ i '^8d J 


I iU J 




Fig. 91. Standard Whitworth Nut 



eight parts to represent ^ in. The reading of a scale is illus- 
trated on the half-size scale, 14J in. being measured off. 
A better illustration, however, is shown on the quarter-size 
scale. To measure off 2 to 5f in., take 2 ft. from the zero line 
to the left side and 5| in. from zero line to the right side. 



Nuts and Bolts. 

The approximately correct formula for proportions of 
Whitworth nuts is 

Distance across flats '= IJ X dia. of screw -j- Jin. 



198 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



For drawing purposes, however, 
where d = diameter of screw 

DJ = distance across flats 

Dc = distance across corners 
then Df = Ifd. 

Dc = 2d. 

The full proportions are given in Fig. 92. It would be 
advantageous to the student to draw three views of nuts of 





Fig. 92. Bolt, Nut, and Lock Nut 

various sizes. The approximate proportions of a standard 
lock nut are also given. 



Screws and Screw Threads. 

A screw thread is set out in the form of a helix, that is to say, 
if the screw was set vertical and a small spigot placed in the 
recess of the screw thread, it would, upon revolving the screw 
at a constant speed, rise or fall at a constant velocity. The 
pitch of a screw is the distance from the centre line of one 
screw thread to the centre line of the adjacent screw thread. 
When speaking of pitches of screw thread, these are generally 
expressed in terms of number of threads per inch. The 
commonest form of screw thread is the " Whitworth " thread, 
introduced by Sir Joseph Whitworth. The angle of this 
thread is 55°, rounded top and bottom to one-sixth of the 
depth. (Fig. 93). 



TEXTILE DRAWING 



199 



The only other thread used on textile machinery, and this 
very rarely, is the square thread. (Fig. 94). 



Diameter of 


No. of Threads 


Diameter of 


No. of Threads 


Screw 


per Inch 


Screw 

1 


per Inch 


inches 




inches 




t\ 


24 


1 


9 


i 


20 


1 


8 


tV 


18 


n 


7 


f 


16 


n 


7 


/^ 


14 


If 


6 


i 


12 


n 


6 


f 


11 


If 


5 


f 


10 


If 


5 




Fig. 94 



Fastening Pulleys, etc., to Shafts. 

There are different methods of fastening pulleys to shafts, 
but the two most common methods are : (1) by means of 
keys, (2) by means of set screws. 

Keys. There are different types of keys, and those commonly 
used on textile machinery are described below. 

{a) Saddle Key. For light work only. Keyway cut in boss 
of pulley, and one face of key hollowed out to fit shaft. The 
opposite face of key has a taper of about J in. per foot or 
1 in 96. This key is fitted with a gib head at the thick end of 
key to make it easily removable. 

(6) Flat Key. The commonest type of key used on textile 
machinery. A flat is filed on the shaft the same width as the 
key. The top side of the key is tapered as in the case of the 

14— (5093) 



200 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



(a) 




Saddle Kei^ 



'^^^m' 



(c) 




3r 



Sunk Ke.\^ 




(h) 



\<.t\i on Flat 




Feather Key 




Boss of Pulley Secured 
by Set Screw, 



Application of 
"Woodruff" Key. 



Chased 

Boss 

Carrier 



Change 
Wheel 





Method of 

Car rising Change 

Wheels. 



Fig 95. Fastening Pulleys to Shafts 



TEXTILE DRAWING 201 

saddle key, and the sides are a '' push " fit in the key way. 
The key is either driven in the boss of the pulley or the pulley 
driven on the key, according to its position on the machine. 

(c) Sunk Key. Used for heavy work. A keyway is cut in 
both shaft and boss of pulley, but the keyway in the boss is 
deeper at the sides than it is in the shaft. 

This may be rather misleading to the student, but by 
referring to Fig. 95c, it will be seen that half the key is in the 
shaft and half in the boss on the vertical centre line only, and 
as the periphery of the shaft recedes from the horizontal 
centre line, the depth of the keyway at the sides is much less 
in the shaft than in the boss. 

A formula easily remembered by the student for the propor- 
tions of sunk keys is given below, but although often used, 
these proportions are not universally adopted by engineers. 

Let D = diameter of shaft. 

then width of key = W = — -\-—m. 

5 

thickness of key at thick end = T = -W. 

(d) Feather Key. Used for sliding dogs of clutches etc. 
The shaft is key-seated by a vertical cutter. Key is fitted 
in shaft, and keyway in boss made an easy fit on key, to allow 
boss to slide freely on shaft. The feather key has no taper, 
and is sometimes secured in keyway of shaft by countersunk- 
headed set screws. 

(e) Woodruff Key. This key, used when a taper end is 
turned on shaft to ensure concentricity, is an easy fit in the 
keyway of the boss, and the wheel or pulley is held endways 
by means of a nut screwed on to the end of the shaft forcing 
the wheel on to the taper. 

A taper spigot and bore is an ideal way of ensuring con- 
centricity of a wheel or pulley on a shaft. Due to the clearance 
necessary between the outside diameter of a shaft and the 
bore in a boss, there is always the risk of " tilting " when 
keying with a taper key, thereby tending to make the boss run 
eccentric with the shaft, and due to this, it is always policy for 
correct alignment of two shafts coupled together by flanged 



202 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



couplings, to machine the spigot and recess of the coupHngs 
after they have been fitted to the shafts. 

Illustrations are also shown (/) of the method of fastening a 
pulley to a shaft by means of a set screw, and (g) method of 
carrying change wheels on a chased boss carrier. 

Rivets and Riveted Joints. 

The introduction of the steel carriage for the mule, and 
recent Factory Act orders making guards for all gears com- 
pulsory, will make the subject of riveted and welded joints 
more interesting to textile students than has hitherto been the 
case. Although in these cases the strength of rivets is of no 




Fig. 96. Types of Rivets before 
Being Driven In 




Fig. 9" 



Types of Rivets after Being 
Driven In 



great importance, figures giving these strengths are tabulated 
below. 

The diameter of rivet heads is approximately If times the 
diameter of the rivet. 

It would be interesting to the student at this point to study 
the riveting of the blades to the cylinder plates on the opener 
in the sxoinning laboratory. 

As will be seen from Fig. 96, the rivets are first made with a 
head, these are heated to a white heat in the case of iron 
rivets, and a bright cherry red in the case of steel rivets. 
After being placed in position on the joint to be made, the 
other head is formed either by hand or machine. 

We now come to the size and pitch of rivets for varying 
thicknesses of plate. 



TEXTILE DRAWING 
Proportions of Riveted Lap Joints 



203 



Thickness of 


Diameter of 


Diameter of 


Single 


Double 


Plate 


Rivet 


Hole in Plate 


Riveted 


Riveted 


in Inches 


in Inches 


in Inches 


in Inches 


in Inches 


i 


1 


H 


2 


3 


tV 


u 


1 


2rV 


H 


1 


* 


H 


2i 


H 


A 


-H 


1 


2fV 


3| 


i 


i 


H 


2i 


H 



Professor Unwin gives the formula for diameter of rivets in 
relation to thickness of plate. 

d = l'2^/t. Where d = diameter of rivet and 

t = thickness of plate. 



(Edges bevelled 
at an angle 
of SO'-) -> 



vww^^-^V^ 



(Edges bevelled 

at an angle 
, of 30°) -^ 



/-1^../rT>. 



^q^ 





Fig. 98 
Single Riveted Lap Joint 



Fig. 99 
Double Riveted Lap Joint 



Couplings. 

(1) " Muff " or Box Coupling. Used for small shafts, which 
should butt together. The coupling is plain cylindrical in 
shape and is keyed to shafts. 



204 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



— A^-A 



m 



PH- 



Double Strap Single Strap 

Fig. 100. Rivets and Rivet Joints 




Fig. 101 Box Coupling 



E ^^E 




. B ^ ^ ^ B ,1 



Fig. 102. Flanged Coupling 



TEXTILE DRAWING 



205 



2. Flanged Couplings. The spigot on the one side and the 
recess on the other should be machined when the coupUng 
halves are each fitted to its own shaft, as this ensures correct 
alignment. 







Proportions of Flanged 


Couplings 




























Bolts 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


G 


H 


J 


K 




























No. 


Dia. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




in. 


1 


1| 


2i 


4 


H 


A 


n. 




y^.T 


i 


5 


t 


li 


^rV 


2| 


5 


tP 


* 


1 7 




32 


i 


5 


t\ 


i* 


n 


31 


6 


H 


T(J 


H 




9 
TI2 


i 


5 


i 


11 


3rV 


4 


7 


h'. 


i 


2^ 




:V^2 


i 


5 


tV 


2 


H 


4i 


8 


Iflr 


tk 


3 




T^ 


T^ 


5 


^ 


H 


3lg 


H 


9 


h% 


* 


3t 




Si 

TJ5 


rV 


5 


H 


H 


4t 


6t 


10 


W. 


Ir^ 


H 




3^2 


f\ 


5 


^ 


3 


H 


H 


12 


m 


ii^ 


H 




3='2 


1 


5 


1 



Materials Used in Textile Machinery Construction. 

Cast Iron. Used for machine framings, roller beams, 
roller stands, bearing pedestals, levers, etc. 
Wrought Iron. Used for nuts, bolts, washers. 
Mild Steel. Used in place of wrought iron wherever possible. 

m 




j^^^ 



^^^^^^ 



/^^y/^yA 




Cast Iron Wrought Iron Steel Brass Wood Lead 

Fig. 103. Sectional Shading for Various Materials 



Mild Steel. Used for shafts, top and bottom rollers, spindles, 
flyers, and pressers, and generally where the material has to 
withstand a torsional stress. 

Malleable Iron. (Castings which are placed in powdered red 
hoematite, and kept at a bright red heat for varying periods of 
time according to size of casting.) Used for mule sickles, 
tin roller blocks, knee brakes for ringframe spindles. 

Tin (Alloy). Used for mule and ringframe tin rollers, 



206 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

perforated roving rods for mules, flyframes and ringframes, 
pneumatic conveyor pipes for blowing rooms, sliver plates, etc. 

Brass. Used for roller footsteps, spindle footsteps and 
bolsters, bushes for bearings, etc. 

Sheet Steel. Used for flyframe casing plates, carriages for 
mules, lap guards for ribbon and sliver lap machines, and 
machine guards, etc. 

Leather. Used for mule frictions, brake blocks for lap 
building motions on openers, sliver and ribbon lap machines, 
belting, etc. 

Wood is used for various parts of textile machinery, such as 
carriages for mules, creels for mules, flyer and ringframes, 
bobbins and skewers, lap rollers, etc. 

Alloys. An alloy is produced by melting two or more metals 
together. Copper, tin, zinc, and lead are the principal metals 
used in the manufacture of alloys. The best knowii alloy is 
brass. 

In making a sectional elevation through a detail, the various 
materials have a special sectioning of their own as detailed 
in Fig. 103. 



TEST PAPERS 

By courtesy of the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Insti- 
tutes, we are enabled to give the following papers in COTTON 
SPINNING, TEXTILE MATHEMATICS, and TEXTILE 
DRAWING, set for the FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING 
COURSE, during the years 1925, 1926, and 1927. 

COTTON SPINNING 
1925 (3 Hours) 

General Instructions 

Not more than ten questions may be answered. 
Make sketches to ilkistrate your answers wherever possible. 
A sUde rule may be used. 

All steps leading to the required result must be shown in immediate 
connection with the question. 

The maximum number of marks obtainable is 70. 

1. Draw up a table similar to that shown below, but with 
all particulars filled in — 



Name of Cotton 


Length 

of 
Staple 


Colour 


Maxi- 
Feel mum 
Counts 


Other 
Prop- 
erties 


Egyptian (Sakellaridis) 












Egyptian (Uppers) 












American (Texas) 












Peruvian (Rough) 













2. Sketch and describe a hopper bale breaker and show how 
it may be connected to either a mixing lattice or pneumatic 
delivery system. 

3, Sketch and describe a hopper feeder showing clearly how 
the feeding of the cotton is automatically regulated. 

207 



208 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

4. Make a gearing plan of a single scutcher and indicate 
the principal change places. 

5. What are the functions of a taker-in on a carding engine 1 
Make a sectional elevation showing the feed roller, feed plate, 
taker-in, mote knives, and undercasing, in their correct relative 
positions. 

6. What are the objects of the flexible bend on a carding 
engine 1 Briefly describe, and with the aid of sketches, illus- 
trate any such bend with which you are acquainted. 

7. From the following particulars calculate the surface 
speed in feet per minute of — 

{a) Taker-in 9 in. diameter. 

(6) Cylinder, 50 in. diameter. 

(c) Doffer, 24 in. diameter. 
Lineshaft 150 revolutions per minute with pulley 21 in. 
diameter, driving pulley on cylinder shaft 18 in. diameter, 
cylinder end pulley 18 in. diameter driving 7 in. pulley on 
taker-in, 5 in. pulley on opposite end of taker-in driving a 
12 in. pulley with which is compounded a 30's wheel gearing 
with lOO's carrier ; the latter carrier is compounded with a 
40 's wheel which drives the 192's doffer wheel. 

8. What are the functions of a drawing frame ? Describe 
any such frame with which you are familiar. 

9. What are the objects sought in flyframes ? Name the 
principal essential parts of one kind of fly frame. 

10. Illustrate by clearly defined sketches how all three lines 
of rollers on a flyframe are driven, and indicate the position 
of the change wheel for regulating the draft. 

11. If four leas of yarn weighs 4 pennyweights 2 grains, 
what are the counts ? 

12. Make a neat sketch showing how the spindle of a 
ring frame is carried by the spindle rail, and on the same 
sketch show the ring rail in relation to the spindle at the two 
extremities of the lift. 

13. Why are the drawing rollers of a ring frame usually 
inclined at an angle ? What is the most common angle ? 

14. Describe what takes place in a mule during one com- 
plete cycle of operation. 

15. What are the functions of a roller traverse motion as 
applied to the mule ? Sketch and describe any motion with 
which you are acquainted. 



TEST PAPERS 



209 



16. Why are the spindles in a mule carriage placed at an 
angle ? What is this angle usually called, and what is the 
approximate amount for medium counts ? 

1926 (3 Hours) 

Not more tlian eight questions may be answered. 
1. Draw up a table similar to that shown below, but with 
the particulars filled in — 



Name of Cotton 


Length 

of 
Staple 


Colour 


Feel 


Maxi- 
mum 
Comits 


Other 
Pro- 
perties 


Egyptian (Sakellaridis) 












American (Memphis) . 












Peruvian (Rough) 












Sea Islands 













2. What are the functions of the evener roller in a hopper 
bale breaker ? Sketch and describe any type with which you 
are acquainted. 

3. Sketch and describe a pneumatic mixing installation and 
state its advantages as compared with ordinary mixing 
lattices. 

4. Name at least three different kinds of beating devices 
employed in openers and scutchers, and explain how each acts 
upon the cotton. 

5. Sketch a sectional elevation of a carding engine, showing 
the lap, feed plate, feed roller, licker-in, cyHnder, flats, doffer, 
and calender rollers, in their correct relative positions. 

Also state the speed of all the above parts for any cotton 
with which you are acquainted. 

6. How is the cotton taken from the doffer of a carding 
engine ? Sketch and describe the mechanism, and give the 
approximate speeds of the moving parts. 

7. Sketch the drawing rollers of a drawing frame showing the 
path of the sUver, and how it is guided to and from the rollers. 



210 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

8. Make a neat sketch and describe the gearing of all three 
hnes of drawing rollers of any fly frame with which you are 
familiar. You are to indicate clearly the change places. 

9. On an intermediate frame the front roller is IJin. 
diameter, and the back roller 1 J in. diameter ; the front roller 
pinion has 20 teeth, the crown wheel 90 teeth, the change 
pinion 35, the back roller wheel 45 teeth. Find the draft. 

10. By means of a sketch illustrate the driving of the spindles 
on both sides of a ring frame having two lines of tin rollers. 

11. Sketch and describe the driving of mule drawing rollers 
and explain exactly what happens during a complete cycle of 
operations. 

12. What are the functions of a roller traverse motion ? 
Describe any such motion with which you are acquainted. 

1927 (3 Hours) 

Not more than eirjht questions may be answered. 

1. Describe what is meant by the following terms, stating 
how they affect the ultimate use of the cotton to which they 
refer — harsh or smooth ; coarse oi fine ; regular or irregular 
staple ; long or short staple. [10] 

2. Why is long and fine staple cotton like that grown in the 
Sea Islands, more suitable for high-class goods than the 
shorter staple cotton found in the Southern States of North 
America ? [8] 

3. What are the objects sought by installing a cotton 
mixing plant ? Sketch the plan and elevation of a mixing 
room, showing the bale breaker in the centre of the room but 
at the extreme right-hand end with the feed near the said 
end-wall. There are to be six mixings, i.e. three on each side 
of the room. You may show either mixing lattices or the 
pneumatic delivery boxes. [8] 

4. Sketch and describe how the dust and dirt are conveyed 
from either an opener or scutcher, and explain what you 
consider are the essential features of an efficient installation 
in this respect. [8] 

5. Sketch and describe a combined exhaust opener installa- 
tion where the hopper feeder and porcupine opener are in an 
upper room, and the cotton is conveyed in pipes, thence 
through a dust extractor and a vertical opener to a horizontal 



TEST PAPERS 211 

exhaust opener. The pipes must be so arranged that the cotton 
may, if desired, be passed from the dust extractor to the 
exhaust opener without passing through the vertical opener. 
For what kind of cotton would you consider this installation 
suitable ? [10] 

6. What are the functions of the taker-in on a cotton card ? 
Make a sectional view showing the above in conjunction with 
the mote knives and undercasing. What would be the speed 
of the taker-in for working cotton suitable for spinning either 
{a) 60's good Egyptian, or (6) 30's good American ? [8] 

7. Sketch and describe the coiler of a card. Why does the 
can revolve as well as the coiler " press " or delivery wheel ? 
Why is the can not set exactly over the centre of the press 
wheel ? [8] 

8. What are the objects sought by the use of the draw 
frame ? Why are stop-motions so very important on this 
machine ? Sketch and describe any stop motion with which 
you are acquainted. [8] 

9. From the following particulars make a sketch of the 
drawing roller gearing of a drawframe. Front roller wheel 
20 teeth driving a " crown " or top carrier wheel of 110 teeth, 
with which is compounded a draft wheel of 65 teeth, driving a 
wheel of 100 teeth on the back roller. The back roller is fitted 
with a 48's wheel which drives through a carrier to a 16's wheel 
on second roller (or the third roller counting from the back) ; 
also the back roller has a 25's wheel which drives an 18's wheel 
on the third roller (or second from back). The diameters of 
the rollers are : front, If in. ; second, 1 J in. ; third and fourth. 
If in. Find the draft between front and back. [8] 

10. Sketch the spindle of a roving frame, showing how it 
is supported by the footstep and the collar respectively. 
Explain the objects of the collar, and show how the support 
given to the spindle differs where long and short collars are 
used respectively. [8] 

11. What is the reason for placing the rollers of a ring 
spinning frame at an angle to the horizontal ? Make a neat 
sketch of the rollers and stand in relation to the roller beam, 
and show the thread guides and spindle in the correct relative 
positions. [10] 

12. Define carriage draft in a mule. How does the carriage 
derive its motion, both during the outward and inward run ? [8] 



212 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

TEXTILE MATHEMATICS 
1925 (21 Hours) 

Not more than eiglU questions may be answered. 

1. The resultant counts of two single yarns A and B doubled 
together may be obtained by dividing the product of the 
singles by their sum. Write this down in algebraical form, and 
find the counts of a two-fold yarn made up of one end of 30 's 
and one of 60 's. 

2. From the following particulars calculate the cost of 
covering a card cylinder with wire — 



Cylinder 50 in. diameter x 42 in. wide 
wide, price of fillet tenpence per foot. 



wire fillet 2 in, 



3. If a drawing frame consisting of six deliveries and six 
ends to each delivery is stopped 4 seconds when each back can 
is empty, and assuming that each back can contains sufficient 
sliver to run 120 minutes, what is the percentage time lost 
during a working day of 8 J hours ? 

4. For practical purposes it is approximately correct to say 
that the diameter of a cotton yarn is reduced in inverse pro- 
portion to the square root of the counts. Find, therefore, by 
what percentage the diameter of a 36's yarn is less than that 
of 16's counts. 

5. The following table gives the comparative numbers of 
French and Enghsh counts for cotton yarns. Plot a chart 
showing the relation between the two systems, and from this 
chart find the French counts equivalent to 120's English, and 
the English equivalent of 44's French — 



English coimts 


10 


26 


46 


84 


96 


110 


French counts 


8-47 


22-02 


38-96 


71-15 


81-31 


101-64 



6. Assuming a coiler can, measuring 36 in. long x 9 in. 
diameter, to be closely packed with cotton sliver, and allowing 
for a core or hole of 2 in. diameter throughout the centre of the 
can, how many cubic feet of cotton does the can contain ? 

7. If 80,000 lb. weight of cotton during its progress through 



TEST PAPERS 



213 



the mill, loses in waste 2,400 lb. in the blowing room, 1,800 lb. 
in the card room, and 1,400 lb. in the spinning room, calculate 
the percentage of waste made at each process. 

8. The air in a cotton conveyor pipe 14 in. diameter is found 
to have a velocity of 50 ft. per second ; find the volume of air 
passing through per minute. 

9. If the total draft between the back and front rollers of a 
roving frame is 6, and the draft between the middle and front 
rollers 4-5 times that of the draft between the back and middle 
rollers, what is the draft between each pair of rollers ? 

10. By the use of logarithms, calculate the value of r from 
the following equation: 1716 = 4'2r^. 

11. The centrifugal force of a ring frame traveller = 0-00034 
WRN'^ grains. When W — weight of traveller, say 1-5 grains, 
R = effective radius in feet to centre of traveller, which 
measures say 0-905 in., iV = revolutions per minute of 
traveller, say 8,000. 

From the above particulars find the centrifugal force of the 
traveller. 

12. Plot the following quantities on squared paper and 
ascertain from the graph the probable twist constant required 
to produce the maximum strength of yarn. 



Breaking strength of 
20's yarn from 
Egyptian cotton . 

Twist constant 




17 



1926 (21 Hours) 

Not more than eight questions may be answered. 

1. The total draft between back and front rollers of a draw- 
ing frame is 5-94. If the- draft between third and front rollers 
is 3-3 and the draft between second and third is IJ times 
greater than the draft between first and second, find the draft 
between each pair of rollers. 

Note. The total draft is the product of the intermediate 
drafts. 

2. The following results were obtained during an experi- 
ment to determine the relation between the resistance of 



214 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



friction and the pressure which produces friction when the 
surfaces are in actual uniform motion — 



Pressure in lb. between surfaces 
producing friction 


11-4 


18-4 


22-4 


29-4 


39-4 


50-4 


60-4 


74-4 


88-4 


118-4 


Resistance in lb. of friction = 
force parallel to surfaces 


1-8 


2-7 


3-5 


4-3 


5-7 


7-3 


8-7 


10-8 


12-8 


17-2 



Plot the above on squared paper and find the value of /^ 
when resistance of friction = fj, times pressure between 
surfaces. 

3. Suppose you had a large rolled steel joist 30 ft. long and 
sectional dimensions as Fig. 1 . You have no means of weighing 
it, but you know that one cubic inch of mild steel weighs 
0-28 lb. What is its weight ? 



6 




Fig. 1 

For the purposes of this question the radii of the corners 
and edges may be ignored. 

4. Centrifugal force F may be calculated from the following 
formula — 

gr 

Where W = weight in lb., F = velocity of object in feet 
per second, gr — 32, r = radius of the circular path of the 
object in feet, find the centrifugal force of a ring frame traveller 
weighing 2 grains, and revolving on a ring having an effective 
radius of 1 in. and making 10,080 revolutions per minute, 
(lib. = 7,000 grains.) 



TEST PAPERS 



215 



5. A certain room in the mill is required by Factory Act 
to have the whole atmosphere changed four times every hour 
by means of an exhaust fan. If the room measures 150 ft. long 
by 100 ft. wide and 12 ft. average height; and the machines 
and operatives occupy 15 per cent of the total space, how 
many cubic feet per minute must the fan exhaust ? 

6. The French hank is equal to 1,000 metres, and the 
number or counts of yarn is indicated by the number of hanks 
required to weigh 500 grammes. Find the French counts of a 
sample of yarn 6,600 metres long weighing 100 grammes. 

Also what would be the English counts of the yarn if one 
metre equals 39-37 in. and 1,000 grammes equals 2-2047 lb. ? 

7. The following table shows the comparison between cotton 
yarn counts and artificial silk yarn counts or " denier." You 
are required to plot these quantities on squared paper, and 
from the graph determine the point at which the denier and 
cotton counts are represented by the same number — 



Cotton counts 



Equivalent denier in 
artificial silk 



10 


16 


24 


35 


44 


528 


330 


220 


150 


120 



60 



8. The horse-power which may be safely transmitted by 
mild steel shafting running under good normal conditions, 
may be determined from the following formula — - 



H.P. 



80 



Where d = diameter of shaft in inches and R = number of 
revolutions per minute. 

From this formula and by the use of logarithms, find the 
diameter of a shaft that will safely transmit 74 h.p. when 
making 520 revolutions per minute. 

9. If, in producing yarn, 35,000 lb. of cotton are used per 
week, of which 4 per cent is taken out in the blowing room, 
10 per cent in the card room, and 2 per cent in subsequent 
processes, what would be {a) the w^eight of finished yarn ? 
(6) the overall percentage of waste ? 

15— (5093) 



216 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



10. Find the diameter of a main steam pipe capable of 
feeding 4 branch pipes of the following diameters : 1 in., H in., 
2 in., 21 in. 

Note. The capacity of main pipe must be made equal to 
75 per cent of the total capacity of the branch pipes. 

11. If the tension in the tight side of a driving belt is 2-6 
times the tension in the slack side, and their difference is 
153-6 lb., find the mean tension in the belt. 

12. The following rule may be used for calculating the 
counts of yarn from any given length. Multiply the length L 
in yards by 100 and divide by 12 times the weight W in grains. 
Write this down mathematically in the form of an equation, 
and find the w^eight in grains of 720 yards of 60 's twist. 



1927 (2i Hours) 

Not more than eight questions may be answered. 

1. A flyframe front roller 1 J in. diameter runs at 150 revolu- 
tions per minute. Calculate the roller delivery in inches per 
minute, and turns per inch when the spindle speed is 550 
revolutions per minute. [8] 

2. An elongation test on a piece of card cylinder filleting 
2 in. wide, 12 in. long, gave the following results — 



Load in lb. . 


50 
•075 


100 
•145 


150 
•215 


200 


250 


300 


350 


400 


Extension in inches . 


•290 


•360 


•435 


•500 


•568 



Plot the above figures on squared paper and draw a straight 
line connecting the points. 

From your graph find the extension when the load is 325 lb. 
(Note card filleting is put on at this tension.) If the total 
extension was -96 in. when the specimen broke, calculate the 
percentage elongation. [10] 

3. A scutcher fan, when running at 1,340 revolutions per 
minute delivers air through a 12^ in. diameter pipe at a 
velocity of 75 ft. per second. Calculate the volume of air 
discharged in cubic feet per minute. [8] 

4. A scutcher lap measures 38 in. long by 14 in. diameter ; 
find its diameter when one -half the weight of the cotton has 
been unwound. For the purpose of this example you must 



TEST PAPERS 217 

assume that the density of the cotton is constant throughout, 
and you must also ignore the weight and size of the lap rod. 
Express the smaller diameter as a percentage of the original 
diameter. [8] 

5. A card is fed with 1,650 lb. of cotton from which 1,584 lb. 
of sliver are produced ; the flat strips weigh 35 lb. and the 
fly 27 lb. What is the percentage loss at each of the above 
points ? Also find the percentage " invisible " loss. [8] 

6. The maximum deflection in inches of a beam supported 
at both ends, and uniformly loaded, is given by the formula — 

_ 5 wP 

Where w = the total load on the beam, 
I = the length in inches, 
E = the modulus of elasticity of the material, 
/ = the moment of inertia of the beam, 

bv the aid of logarithms, find D when w = 10 tons, / = 20 ft., 
E = 15,000 tons per sq. in., 7 = 220. [10] 

7. What is the daily cost in winter of lighting a spinning 
room containing 12 pairs of mules, if each pair is provided 
with eight 100 watt lamps, and the current is supplied at 
0-75 pence per unit ? For the purpose of this question, assume 
an average of 4 hours per day with all lights on. [8] 

8. Find the diameter of a single pipe, the sectional area of 
which shall be equal to 75 per cent of total sectional area 
of the following pipes — 

2 pipes 1 in. diameter. 

3 „ 14 in. 

4 „ 2 in. „ [8] 

9. Using A for one count and B for the other, write the 
following rule in algebraic form — 

To obtain the counts of unequal singles twisted together, 
multiply the single counts together for a numerator, 
add the single counts together for the denominator, 
and the answer is the count required. 

Find the resultant counts of one end of 46's twisted with one 
end of 120's. [8] 

10. Coal is stored in a space measuring 40 yd. long by 



218 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

30 yd. wide, and is stacked to an average height of 8 ft. If 
coal thus stored weighs 50 lb. per cubic foot find — 

(a) The total quantity in tons. 

(6) The value at 25 shillings per ton. [8] 

11. Artificial silk yarn counts are based on the weight in 
deniers of 476 metres. There are 8533-5 deniers in a lb. 

Find the equivalent counts of artificial silk yarns to that of 
35's cotton counts. 

(1 metre = 39-73 in.) [10] 

12. Calculate the length of a butt jointed belt suitable for 
driving a mule rim shaft, the distance between the centres of 
countershaft and rim shaft being 9 ft. 6 in., the countershaft 
pulley 22 in. diameter, and the pulley on rim shaft 18 in. 
diameter. [8] 

TEXTILE DRAWING 
1925 (3 Hours) 

General Instructions 

Not more than two questions may be answered, one of which must 
be Question 1. 

You are expected to prove your knowledge of machinery, as well as 
your capability of drawing neatly to scale. You are therefore to supply 
details omitted in the sketches, to fill in parts left incomplete, and to 
indicate, by diagonal lines, parts cut by section planes. 

No credit will be given if the candidate shows that he is ignorant of 
projection. The centre lines should be clearly drawn. 

You may draw and sketch on both sides of the numbered sheet of 
drawing paper supplied. 

A slide rvile may be used. 

The number of marks assigned to each question is given in brackets. 
The maximum nvimber of marks obtainable is 70. 

1. Fig. 1 shows two elevations of a simple bearing com- 
monly used on textile machinery. You are required to draw, 
full size, (1) a front elevation exactly as shown ; (2) an end 
elevation, but drawn in section as cut along line XY : (3) a 
plan. [60] 

2. Sketch three kinds of keys suitable for securing a pulley 
to a shaft. ' [10] 

3. Show by means of a freehand sketch, approximately full 
size, how a draft wheel is compounded with the " crown " or 
carrier wheel. [10] 




219 



220 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



1926 (3 Hours) 

Not more than two questions may be answered, one of wliich must 
be Question 1. 

1. Draw, full size, the two views of the bracket shown in 
Fig. 1, and add a third view directly underneath the front 
elevation as seen when looking in the direction of the arrow X . 

Note. Dimensions and dimension lines are not required. 

[55] 

2. Make a well proportioned sketch, half of which should be 
in section and the other in outside elevation, of a coupling 
suitable for joining together either {a) any two lengths of fly 
frame bobbin or spindle driving shafts or (6) any two lengths 
of mule back scroll shaft. [15] 

3. What is a knuckle joint and in what instances is it a 
necessity ? Sketch any such joint with which you are 
acquainted. [15] 




221 



222 



FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 



1927 (3 Hours) 

Not more than two questions may be answered, one of which must be 
Question 1. 

1. Fig. 1 shows two views of a common form of bracket used 
in textile machinery. You are required to draw (full size) the 
two views shown, and to add a third or plan view directly 
under the front elevation, as seen when looking in the direction 
of arrow W . 

Note. Dimension lines and dimensions must not be shown. 

[50] 




Front Elevation 



Fig. 1 



End Elevation 



TEST PAPERS 223 

2. By means of neatly made sketches, draw, freehand 
(except the circles, which should be drawn with compasses), 
approximately full size, the boss of a pulley or wheel secured 
to a shaft by the following means — 

(1) An ordinary flat key. 

(2) A woodruff key. 

(3) A half -inch set screw. 

Note. The shaft is IJ in. diameter, and the boss 3 in. 
diameter. [20] 

3. Make a scale of 3 in. to 1 ft. to measure 3 ft., the first 
foot to be subdivided so as to measure to a quarter of an inch. 

[10] 



SYLLABUS OF THE FIRST YEAR COURSE IN COTT9N 

SPINNING, OF THE UNION OF LANCASHIRE AND 

CHESHIRE INSTITUTES 

Cotton Spinning (Theory) 2 hours per week. 
Textile Mathematics 2 hours per week. 

Textile Drawing and Cotton Spinning (Practical) 

Alternately 2 hours per week. 

COTTON SPINNING 

1. A short statement of all the processes of cotton spmning, 
with actual examination by students of cotton in all stages, 
from raw cotton to spun yarn. 

2. A brief survey of the cultivation, ginning, baling, and 
distribution of cotton, with actual finger ginning of a piece 
of cotton by each student. 

Note. The above two clauses are intended for class ivork 
only, and not for examination purposes. 

3. The ordinary properties of cotton ; structure, length, 
diameter, colour. 

4. The special features of Sea Islands, Egyptian, South 
American, North American, and Indian cottons. Amount 
grown. 

5. The principles of opening and cleaning cotton by opening 
and scutching machinery. The ordinary construction, objects, 
and working of hopper bale-breakers, hopper feeders, openers, 
and scutchers ; cotton conveyors. Passage and disposal of 
cotton, dust, and undesirable matter. Various kinds of beat- 
ing instruments, diameters, speeds, and direction of principal 
organs. Speed calculations — methods of driving various parts ; 
gearing plans. 

6. The principles and objects of cotton carding. The charac- 
teristics, ordinary construction, and working of the revolving 
flat carding engine ; passage of cotton through this card, with 

224 



SYLLABUS OF FIRST YEAR ( OURSE 225 

speeds, diameters, directions, and actions of parts, from lap 
to sliver ; flexible bends. The coiler, speed calculations, 
methods of driving the various parts, gearing plan. 

7. Drawing Frames. Principles and objects of the drawing 
frame ; passage of cotton through machine, with diameters, 
speeds, directions, and method of driving the various parts ; 
gearing plan ; coiler arrangements. 

8. Bobbin and Fly Frames. Principles and objects of these 
machines. Method of producing rovings ; construction and 
driving of roller and spindles (not building and winding 
arrangements). Creel arrangements, passage of cotton through 
machine ; long and short collars. Methods of supporting the 
rollers. Sj)eed calculations. 

9. Tables of weights and measures used in the cotton mill. 

10. Ring and Flyer Spinning Frames. Principles and objects 
of these machines ; driving, weighting, and working of draft 
rollers ; tin rollers ; spindles, rings, travellers ; inclined roller 
stands ; creels speed calculations, gearing plan ; clearers, 
spindle bands ; thread-board mechanism ; anti- ballooning 
appliances ; ring rails and spindle rails. 

11. Mule Spinning. Passage of cotton from creel to spindle ; 
principles and objects of mule spinning ; methods of driving 
rollers, spindles, and carriage during out-going of carriage : 
also of rollers and carriage during in-going of carriage ; 
carriage drafting ; details of spindles, such as bevel gauge, 
length, wharve, footstep, bolster, and taper ; stretch lengths ; 
carriage construction ; simple roller traverse motions. 

Note. It is not intended that the mechanisyns dealt ivith in 
paragraphs 5 to 11 should be treated in great detail. 

MATHEMATICS 

1. Arithmetic. Revision of vulgar and decimal fractions ; 
rough checks ; averages and percentages ; cotton yarn weights 
and measures, basis of British system of numbering yarns ; 
loss and regain and their effect upon values ; square roots ; 
the application of square root to spinning calculations and 
yarn diameters ; British and metric systems ; counts, hanks, 
diameters of yarns, and areas of yarns, how expressed ; 
methods of finding the results when two or more yarns are 
twisted together. 

2. Mensuration. Perimeters and areas of a quadrilateral, 



226 FIRST YEAR COTTON SPINNING COURSE 

triangle, and circle, with practical applications ; areas of 
irregular plane figures ; areas of cylindrical surfaces and 
calculations thereon, such as quantity of leather required for 
rollers, filleting for card cylinder, etc. ; radiating surfaces of 
pipes ; surfaces, volumes, and weights of rectangular and 
cylindrical bodies, application to bales of cotton, boxes, skips ; 
and questions on storage capacity. 

3. Algebra. Solution of simple equations ; formation and 
use of formulae ; transformation of formulae so as to express 
each quantity in terms of the others ; evaluation of any 
quantity in a formula when the values of the other quantities 
are given ; simple algebraic relations between counts, twists, 
and diameters of yarns per inch ; formulae involving plus and 
minus signs in addition to multiplication and division signs ; 
proportion and variation ; simple factors ; taking out a 
common factor ; difference of two squares ; simple algebraic 
fractions ; addition and subtraction of simple algebraic frac- 
tions ; evaluation of more difficult formulae ; solution of 
simultaneous equations of the first degree. 

4. Graphs. Rectangular co-ordinates ; general exercises in 
plotting ; importance of choice of scales ; plotting of data, 
e.g. practical apph cations of graphs to production and waste, 
production and price questions ; rise and fall of prices, etc. ; 
correction of errors of observation ; interpolation ; simple 
algebraic graphs. 

5. Laws of indices, logarithms and antilogarithms, practical 
applications. 

6. Principles of the slide rule explained, and its application. 

DRAWING 

The instruction in this subject is intended to enable textile 
students to interpret intelligently drawings and diagrams of 
textile machinery, and also to enable them to make useful 
dimensioned sketches and working drawings of simple parts 
of the machinery which they may be called upon to operate, 
adjust, or supervise. The machine parts or models used by the 
students should be, as far as possible, those to be found in a 
mill, on account of the interest which they will create, but 
there is neither the time nor the necessity for students to 
attempt anything complicated or difficult. Drawings should 
be dimensioned and nearly finished. 



SYLLABUS OF FIRST YEAR COURSE 227 

1, Students should be instructed in the use of instruments, 
use and construction of scales, the common methods of 
fastening together the parts of machines, and conventional 
methods of representing screw threads, etc., proportions of 
bolts and nuts, rivets. 

2. The instruction should also include the application of 
the principles of projection to the making, to any required 
scale, of plans, elevations and sections of simple brackets, 
levers, cranks, flange and box couplings for shafts, cotter 
joints, pulleys, hangers, wall boxes, simple bearings,, knuckle 
joints. Neat freehand sketches of the sections and details of 
textile machines to illustrate descriptive matter. 



INDEX 



PART I 

COTTON SPINNING 

Calculations — 
Cotton mixing, 47 
Draft, 82 
Speed, 43 

Cardincj — 

Card waste, 8() 
Coiler, 89 

Flat carding engine, 83 
Flexible bends, 8S 

Cotton— 
African, 20 
Baling of, 24 
Botanical, 1 

British Empire fields, 20 
China, 19 
Defects in, 6 
Egyptian, 13 
General notes osi, 8 
Ginning of, 23 
Growth of, 2 
Indian, 18 
Minor fields in Asia, 20 

— — - in Europe, 19 

Mixing of, 45 

Properties of fibres, 4 

Sea Islands, 1 1 

South American, 14, 15 

Svidan (Empire), 14, 15 

U.S.A., 16 

World's growing areas, 9 

Drawframes — 
Coiler, 97 

Drawing rollers, 95 
Passage of cotton, 92 

Flyframes — 
Collars, 111 
Drawing rollers, 105 
Drive of rollers and spindles. 107 



Flyframes — {contd.) 
Objects of, 100 
Passage of cotton, 101 
Spindles, 110 

Mule Spinning^ — 

Objects, 129 

Self -actor mule : 
Details, 142 

Inward run of carriage, 137 
Outward rim of carriage, 133 
Passage of cotton, 129 
Roller traverse, 145 

Opening and Scutching — 
Beating instruments, 75 
Combined machines, 56 
Crighton vertical opener, 66 
Double exhaust opener, 70 
Doubling of laps, 73 
Hopper bale breaker, 38 
— ■ — • feeder, 57 
Lattice feeder, 62 
Objects of, 61 
Pneumatic conveyors, 48 
Self-cleaning lattice, 66 

Ring Spinning — 
Details, 114 
Objects of, 112 
Passage of cotton, 112 

PART II 

TEXTILE MATHEMATICS 

Cotton coimt constants, 151 
counts, 147 

Difference of two squares, 175 
Doubling of yarn, 162 

Factors, 174 

Fractions (algebraic), 176 

French counts, 161 



229 



230 

Graphs, 179 

Logarithms, 183 
Logarithm table, 185 
Loss and regain, 154 

Mensuration, 165 

Percentages, 152 

Simple equations, 170 
Simultaneous equations, 177 
Square roots, 155 
— ■ — root table, 157 

Transformation of formulae, ] 

UsEFUT. information, 188 

Weights and measures used 
spinning, 147 



INDEX 



PART III 
TEXTILE DRAWING 
Couplings, 203 

Isometric drawing, 192 

Materials used in textile ma- 
chine manufacture, 205 

Methods of fastening pulleys to 
shafts, etc., 199 

Nuts and bolts, 197 

Plans and elevations, 193, 194, 

195 
Principles of projection, 191 

Rivets and riveted joints, 202 

Scales, 196 

Screws and screw threads, 198 



PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE PITMAN PRESS, BATH 

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AN ABRIDGED LIST OF 

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PUBLISHED BY 

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PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY 

LONDON, W.C.2 
The prices given apply only to Great Britain 



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Abrasive Materials, The Manufacture and 

Use of. A. B. Searle . . . . .26 

A.C. Protective Systems and Gear. J. Henderson 

and C. W. Marshall 2 6 

Accumulator Charging. W. S. Ibbetson . .36 

Accumulators, Management of. Sir D. Salomons 7 6 

Aeronautics, Elementary. A. P. Thurston . 8 6 

Aeroplane Design and Construction, Ele- 
mentary Principles of. A. W. Judge . .76 

Aeroplane Structural Design. T. H. Jones 

and J. D. Frier 21 

Aircraft and Automobile Materials — Ferrous. 

A. W. Judge 25 

Aircraft and Automobile Materials — Non- 
Ferrous and Organic. A. W. Judge 

Airship, The Rigid. E. H. Lewitt 

Alcohol, Industrial and Power. R. C. Farmer 

Alternating Current Bridge Methods of 
Electrical Measurement. B. Hague 

Alternating Current Circuit, The. P. Kemp. 

Alternating Current Machinery, Design of. 

J. R. Barr and R. D. Archibald . . . 30 

Alternating Current Machinery, Papers on 
the Design of. C. C. Hawkins, S. P. Smith, and 

S. Neville 21 

B8— 6 



25 





30 





2 


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s. a. 
Alternating Currents, Theory and Practice 

OF. A. T. Dover . . . . . . 18 

Alternating Current Work. W. Perren May cock 10 6 
Architectural Hygiene. B. F. and H. P. Fletcher. 10 6 
Arithmetic of Alternating Currents. E. H. 

Crapper . . . . . . .46 

Arithmetic of Electrical Engineering. Whit- 
taker's . . . . . . • .36 

Arithmetic of Telegraphy and Telephony. 

T. E. Herbert and R. G. de Wardt . . .50 

Armature Winding, Practical Direct Current. 

L. Wollison 7 6 

Artificial Silk and Its Manufacture. J. 

Foltzer. Translated by T. Woodhouse . . 21 

Artificial Silk : Its Manufacture and Uses. 

T. Woodhouse 5 

Automobile and Aircraft Engines, A. W. Judge 30 
Ball and Roller Bearings, Handbook of. A. W. 

Macaulay . . . . . • . 12 6 

Baudot Printing Telegraph System. H. W. 

Pendry 6 

Belts for Power and Transmission. W. G, 

Dunkley . . . . • • .26 

Biology, An Introduction to Practical. N. 

Walker 

Blasting with High Explosives. W. G. Boulton 
Blue Printing and Modern Plan Copying. 

B. J. Hall 

Blue Print Reading. J. Brahdy 
Boiler Inspection and Maintenance. R. 
Clayton. ....... 

Bookbinding and the Care of Books. D. 
Cockerell ....... 

Bookbinding Craft and Industry. T. Harrison 
Brewing and Malting. J. Ross Mackenzie 
Cabinet Making, Art and Craft of. D. Denning 
Cable and Wireless Communications of the 
World, The. F. J. Brown .... 

Cable Jointing, The Art and Craft of. C. G. 
Watson .....•• 

Calculus for Engineering Students. J. Stoney 
Camera Lenses. A. W, Lockett 
Capstan and Automatic Lathes. P. Gates 
Carburettor Handbook. E, W. Knott 
Carpentry and Joinery. B. F. and H. P. 

Fletcher 10 6 



5 





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21 






Central Stations, Modern. C. W. Marshall 
Ceramic Industries Pocket Book. A. B. Searle 
Chemical Engineering, Introduction to. A. F. 

Allen 

Chemistry, A First Book of. A. Coulthard 

Clutches, Friction. R. Waring-Brown 

Coal Carbonization. J. Roberts 

Coal Cutting Machinery. G. F. F. Eagar. 

Colliery Electrical Engineering. G. M. 

Harvey ....... 

Colour in Woven Design. R. Beaumont . 
Compressed Air Power. A. and W. Z. W. 

Daw 21 

Concrete and Reinforced Concrete. W. Noble 

Twelvetrees . . . . . . .30 

Condensing Plant. I. V. Robinson and R. J. 

Kaula 30 

Continuous Current Armature Winding. F. M. 

Denton 2 6 

Continuous Current Dynamo Design, Elemen- 
tary Principles of. H. M. Hobart . . 10 6 
Continuous Current Machines, Testing of. 

C. F. Smith 2 6 

Continuous Current Motors and Control 

Apparatus. W. Perren May cock . . .76 

Costing Organization for Engineers. E. W. 

Workman . . . . . . .36 

Cotton-spinners' Pocket Book. J. F. Innes . 3 6 
Cotton-spinning Machinery. Wm. Scott Taggart 2 6 
Crystal and One Valve Circuits, Successful. 

J. H. Watkins 3 6 

Detail Design of Marine Screw Propellers. 

D. H. Jackson 6 

Diesel Engines, Marine — Locomotive — Sta- 
tionary. D. L. Jones . . . . .210 

Diesel Engine, The. A. Orton . . .26 

Direct Current Dynamo and Motor Faults. 

R. M. Archer 7 6 

Direct Current Electrical Engineering. J. R. 

Barr 15 

Direct Current Electrical Engineering, The 

Elements of. H. F. Trewman and G. E. 

CondlifEe 5 

Direct Current Machines, Performance and 

Design of. A. E. Clayton . . . . 16 

Drawing and Designing. C. G. Leland . .36 



Drawing, Manual Instruction. S. Barter 
Drawing Office Practice. H. P. Ward . 
Dress, Blouse, and Costume Cloths, Design 

AND Fabric Manufacture of. R. Beaumont 
Drop Forging and Drop Stamping. H. Hayes 
Dyes and their Application to Textile 

Fabrics. A. J. Hall .... 
Dynamo, How to Manage the. A. E. Bottone 
Dynamo : Its Theory, Design, and Manufacture 

The. C. C. Hawkins. Vol. I . 

Vol. II 

Vol. Ill 

Electric Bells. S. R. Bottone 

Electric Cables. F. W. Main . . . , 

Electric Circuit Theory and Calculations 

W. Perren Maycock ..... 

Electric Cranes and Hauling Machines. F. E 

Chilton 

Electric Furnace, The. F. J. Moffett 
Electric Guides, Hawkins'. 10 volumes, each 
Electric Heating, Industrial. J. W. Beau- 
champ ....... 

Electric Lamp Industry. G. A. Percival . 
Electric Lighting and Power Distribution 

Vol. I. W. Perren Mavcock . 

Vol. II . . . " . 



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Electric Lighting in Factories. L. Gaster 
Electric Light Fitting, Practical. F. C 

Allsop ....... 

Electric Mining Machinery. S. F. Walker 
Electric Motors and Control Systems. A. T 

Dover . ...... 

Electric Motors — Direct Current. H. M 

Hobart ...... 

Electric Motors — Polyphase. H. M. Hobart 
Electric Motors, A Small Book on. C.C. and 

A.C. W. Perren Maycock 
Electric Motors, Small. E. T. Painton . 
Electric Power Systems. W. T. Taylor . 
Electric Traction. A. T. Dover 
Electric Wiring, Fittings, Switches, and Lamps 

W. Perren Maycock .... 

Electric Wiring Diagrams. W. Perren Maycock 
Electric Wiring Tables. W. Perren Maycock 
Electrical Condensers. P. R. Coursey 
Electrical Educator, Pitman's. J. A. Fleming 

2 Vols 



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s. d. 
Electrical Engineering, Elementary. O. R. 

Randall 5 

Electrical Engineering for Mining Students. 

G. M. Harvey 5 

Electrical Engineers' Pocket Book. Whittaker's 10 6 
Electrical Instrument Making for Amateurs. 

S. R. Bottone 6 

Electrical Instruments in Theory and Prac- 
tice. Murdoch and Oschwald . . . . 12 6 

Electrical Insulating Materials. A. Monk- 
house, Jr. ...... • 

Electrical Insulation. W. S. FUght 
Electrical Machines, Practical Testing of. 
L. Oulton and N. J. Wilson .... 

Electrical Power Engineers' Library. Three 

volumes, each 7s. 6d. ; Complete set 
Electrical Technology. H. Cotton 
Electrical Terms, Dictionary of. S. R. Roget 
Electrical Transmission of Energy. W. M. 
Thornton ....... 

Electricity. R. E. Neal ..... 

Electricity and Magnetism, First Book of. W. 
Perren Maycock ...... 

Electricity in Agriculture. A. H. Allen 
Electricity in Steel Works. W. McFarlane . 
Electrification of Railways. H. F, Trewman 
Electro-Deposition of Copper. C. W. Denny . 
Electro Motors : How Made and How Used. 

S. R. Bottone 

Electrolytic Rectifiers. N. A. de Bruyne 
Electro-Technics, Elements of. A. P. Young . 
Engineer Draughtsmen's Work 
Engineering Factory Supplies. W. J. Hiscox . 
Engineering Hand-Sketching and Scale- 
Drawing. T. Jackson and P. Bentley 
Engineering Inquiries, Data for. J. C. Connan 
Engineering Principles, Elementary. G. E. 

Hall 

Engineering Science, Primer of. E. S. Andrews. 

Part 1, 2s. 6d. ; Part 2, 2s. ; Complete . 
Engineering Workshop Exercises. E. Pull 
Engineers' and Erectors' Pocket Dictionary : 
English, German, Dutch. W. H. Steenbeek . 
English for Technical Students. F. F. Potter 
Explosives, Manufacture and Uses of. R. C. 

Farmer . . . . • • .26 



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5. d. 
Field Manual of Survey Methods and Opera- 
tions. A. Lovat Higgins . . . .210 
Field Work for Schools. E. H. Harrison and 

C. A. Hunter ...... 

Files and Filing. Fremont and Taylor 
Filtration. G. L. Wollaston .... 

Fitting, Principles of. J. G. Horner 

Five Figure Logarithms. W. E. Dommett 

Flax Culture and Preparation. F. Bradbury. 

Foundrywork. B. Shaw and J. Edgar 

Fuel Economy in Steam Plants. A. Grounds . 

Fuel Oils and Their Application. H. V. 

Mitchell 

Furs and Furriery. C. J. Rosenberg 
Gas and Gas Making. W. H. Y. Webber . 
Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines. J. B. 

Rathbun 2 6 

Gas Engine Troubles and Installations. J. B. 

Rathbun ....... 

Gas and Oil Engine Operation. J. Okill 
Gas, Oil, and Petrol Engines. A. Garrard 
Geometry, The Elements of Practical Plane. 

P. W. Scott. Also in Two Parts, each Is. 
Graphic Statics, Elementary. J. T. Wight 
Grinding Machines and Their Uses. T. R. Shaw 
Handrailing for Geometrical Staircases. 

W. A. Scott 

High Heavens, In the. Sir R. Ball . 
Hosiery Manufacture. W. Davis 
House Decorations and Repairs. W. Prebble . 
Hydraulics. E. H. Lewitt .... 

Hydro-Electric Development. J. W. Meares . 
Illuminants and Illuminating Engineering, 

Modern. Dow and Gaster . . , . 25 

Illuminating Engineering, The Elements of. 

A. P. Trotter 

Induction Coils. G. E. Bonney 

Induction Coil, Theory of the. E. Taylor-Jones 

Induction Motor, The. H. Vickers . 

Internal Combustion Engines. J. Okill . 

Ironfounding. B. Whiteley .... 

Ironfounding Practical. J. G. Horner 

Iron, Steel and Metal Trades, Tables for the. 

J. Steel 3 6 

Kinematograph Studio Technique. L. C. 

MacBean . . . . . . .26 



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s. d. 

KiNEMATOGRAPHY (PROJECTION), GUIDE TO. C. N. 

Bennett. . . .... 10 6 

I^ACQUER Work. G. Koizumi . . . . 15 

Leather Craft, Artistic. H. Turner . .50 

Leather Work. C. G. Leland. . . . .50 

Lens Work for Amateurs. H. Orford . .36 

Lettering, Plain and Ornamental. E. G. Fooks 3 6 
Lightning Conductors. Sir O. Lodge. . .15 

Logarithms for Beginners. C. N. Pickworth . 1 6 
Loud Speakers. C. M. R. Balbi . . .36 

Low Temperature Distillation. S. North and 

J. B. Garbe 15 

Lubrication and Lubricants. J. H. Hyde . 2 6 

Machine Design. G. W. Bird. . . . .60 

Machine Drawing, Preparatory Course to. 

P. W. Scott 2 

Machines, Theory of. L. Toft and A. T. J. 

Kersey 12 6 

Magneto and Electric Ignition. W. Hibbert . 3 6 
Manuring Land, Tables for Measuring and. 

J. Cullyer 3 

Marine Screw Propellers, Detail Design of. 

D. H. Jackson .60 

Mathematical Tables. W. E. Dommett . .46 

Mathematics, Engineering Applications of. 

W. C. Bickley 5 

Mathematics for Engineering Students. G. E. 

Hall 5 

Mathematics, Mining. G. W. Stringfellow . .20 

Mechanical Engineering Detail Tables. J. P. 

Ross 7 6 

Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book. Whit- 
taker's 12 6 

Mechanical Handling of Goods. C. H. Woodfield 2 6 
Mechanical Refrigeration. H. Williams . . 20 

Mechanical Stoking. D. Brownlie . . .50 

Mechanical Tables . . . . .20 

Mechanics' and Draughtsmen's Pocket Book. 

W. E. Dommett 2 6 

Mechanics for Engineer .ng Students. G. W. 

Bird 5 

Mercury-Arc Rectifiers and Mercury-Vapour 

Lamps. J. A, Fleming . . . . .60 

Metal Turning. J. G. Horner . . . .60 

Metal Work, Practical Sheet and Plate. 

E. A. Atkins 7 6 



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Metal Work — Repousse. C. G. Leland 

Metallurgy of Cast Iron. J. E. Hurst 

Metallurgy of Iron and Steel, The. Based 

on Notes by Sir Robert Hadfield . . .26 

Metalworkers' Practical Calculator. J. 

Matheson . . . . . . .20 

Metric and British Systems of Weights and 

Measures. F. M. Perkin . . . .36 

Metric Conversion Tables. W. E. Dommett . 1 

Mineralogy. F. H. Hatch . . . .60 

Mining Certificate Series, Pitman's — 

Mining Law and Mine Management. A. Watson 8 6 
Mine Ventilation and Lighting. C. D. 

Mottram . . . . . . .86 

Colliery Explosions and Recovery Work. 

J. W. Whitaker 8 6 

Mining Machinery. T. Bryson. [In Preparatwn) 

Arithmetic and Surveying.' R. M. Evans. . 8 6 
Methods of Working. Prof. Ira C. F. Statham. 
{In Preparation) 

Mining Educator, The. J. Roberts . . . 63 

Mining, Modern Practice of Coal. Kerr and 
Burns. Part 1, 5s. ; Parts 2, 3 and 4, each 

Mining Science, Junior Course in. H. G. Bishop 

Mollier Steam Tables and Diagrams, The 

Motive Power Engineering for Students of 
Mining and Mechanical Engineering. H. C. 
Harris ........ 

Motor Boats. F. Strickland .... 

Motor Control, Industrial. A. T. Dover. 

Motor-Cyclist's Library, The. . . Each 

A.J.S., The Book of the. W. C. Haycraft 
B.S.A., The Book of the. " Waysider " 
Douglas, The Book of the. E. W. Knott 
Motor Cycling for Women. B.and N. Debenham 
P. AND M. The Book of the. W. C. Haycraft 
Raleigh Handbook, The. " Mentor " 
Royal Enfield, The Book of the. " R. E. 

Ryder " 
Rudge, The Book of the. L. H. Cade 
Triumph, The Book of the. E. T. Brown 

Motorist's Library, The — 

Austin Twelve, The Book of the. R. 

Garbutt and R. Twelvetrees. . . .50 

Clyno Car, The Book of the. E. T. Brown. 

[In the Press) 
Standard Car, The Book of the. " Pioneer "60 



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Motor Industry. H. Wyatt .... 
Motor Truck and Automobile Motors and 

Mechanism. T. H. Russell .... 
Municipal Engineering. H. Percy Boulnois 
Music Engraving and Printing. W. Gamble . 
Naval Dictionary, Italian-English and 

English-Italian. W. T. Davis 
Nitrogen, Industrial. P. H. S. Kempton 

■Oil Power. S. H. North 

Oils, Pigments, Paints, Varnishes, etc. R. H. 

Truelove ....... 

■Oscillographs. J. T. Irwin .... 

Patents for Inventions. J. E. Walker and 

R. B. Foster 

Pattern Construction for Garment Makers, 

The Science of. B. W. Poole 
Pattern-making. B. Shaw and J. Edgar 
Pattern-making, Principles of. J. G. Horner 
Petrol Cars and Lorries. F. Heap 
Photographer, The Complete Press. Bell R. 

Bell 

Photographic Chemicals. T. L. J. Bentley and 

J. South worth ...... 

Photographic Technique. L. J. Hibbert . 

Photography, Commercial. D. Charles 

Plan Copying in Black Lines for Hot Climates. 

B. J. Hall 

Plywood and Glue, The Manufacture and Use 

OF. B. C. Boulton ...... 

Pneumatic Conveying. E. G. Philhps 
Power Factor Correction. A. E. Clayton 
Power Station Efficiency Control. J. Bruce. 
Power Wiring Diagrams. A. T. Dover 
Printing. H. A. Maddox ..... 

Pyrometers. E. Griffiths ..... 

Quantities and Quantity Taking. W. E. Davis 
Radioactivity. J. Chad wick .... 

Radio Communication, Modern. J. H. Reyner . 
Radio Year Book ...... 

Railway Electrification. H. F. Trewman 
Railway Signalling : Automatic. F. R. Wilson 
Railway Signalling : Mechanical. F. R. 

Wilson ........ 

Railway Technical Vocabulary. L. Serraillier 
Refractories for Furnaces, etc. A. B. Searle 
Reinforced Concrete. W. N. Twelvetrees 



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Reinforced Concrete Members, Simplified 

Methods of Calculating. W. N. Twelvetrees 
Reinforced Concrete, Detail Design in. 

E. S. Andrews ...... 

Retouching and Finishing for Photographers. 

J. S. Adamson ...... 

Russian Weights and Measures, Tables of. 

Redvers Elder ...... 

Seed Testing. J. S. Remington 
Sewers and Sewerage. H. G. Whyatt 
Shipbuilding and the Shipbuilding Industry. 

J. Mitchell 

Shot-Guns. H. B. C. Pollard .... 
Silverwork and Jewellery. H. Wilson . 
Slide Rule. A. L. Higgins .... 

Slide Rule. C. N. Pickworth .... 
Soil, Science of the. C. Warrell 
Sparking Plugs. A. P. Young and H. Warren . 
Specifications for Building Works. W. L. 

Evershed ....... 

Stained Glass Work. C. W. Whall . 

Steam Engine Valves and Valve Gears. E. L. 

Ahrons ........ 

Steam Locomotive Construction and Mainten- 
ance. E. L. Ahrons ..... 

Steam Locomotive, The. E. L. Ahrons 

Steam Plant, The Care and Maintenance of. 

T. E. Brahani ...... 

Steam Turbine Theory and Practice. W. J. 

Kearton ....... 

Steam Turbo-Alternator, The. L. C. Grant . 
Steels, Special. Based on Notes by Sir R. 

Hadfield. T. H. Burnham .... 

Steel Works Analysis. J. O. Arnold and F. 

Ibbotson ....... 

Stencil Craft. H. Cadness .... 

Storage Battery Practice. R. Rankin . 
Strength of Materials. F. V. Warnock . 
Structural Steelwork. W. H. Black 
Structures, Theory of. H. W. Coxiltas 
Surveying and Surveying Instruments. G. A. 

T. Middleton 

Surveying, Tutorial Land and Mine. T. Bryson 
Switchboards, High Tension. H. E. Poole 

SWITCHGEAR, HiGH TENSION. H. E. Poole . 

Switching and Switchgear. H. E. Poole . 



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Telegraphy. T. E. Herbert .... 
Telegraphy, Elementary. H. W. Pendry. 
Telegraphy, Telephony, and Wireless. J. 

Poole ........ 

Telephone Handbook, Practical. J. Poole 
Telephones, Automatic. F. A. Ellson 
Telephony. T. E. Herbert .... 

Telephony, The Call Indicator System of 

Automatic. A. G. Freestone .... 
Telephony, The Director System of Automatic. 

W. E. Hudson 

Textile Calculations. G. H. Whitwam . 
Thermodynamics, Applied. W. Robinson . 
Tidal Power. A. M. A. Struben 
Tin and the Tin Industry. A. H. Mundey 
Tool and Machine Setting. P. Gates 
Town Gas Manufacture. R. Staley . 
Traction Motor Control. A. T. Dover 
Transformers and Alternating Current 

Machines, The Testing of. C. F. Smith . 2 6 
Transformers for Single and Multiphase 

Currents. Dr. G. Kapp . . . . 15 

Transformers, High Voltage Power. W. T. 

Taylor 2 6 

Transformers, Small Single-phase. E. T. 

Painton . . . . . . .26 

Transport Library — 

Air Transport, Commercial. Lieut. -Col. Ivo 
Edwards and F. Tymms .... 

Port Economics. B. Cunningham . 

Railway Operation, Modern. D. R. Lamb . 

Railway Rates, Principles, and Problems. 
P. Burtt 

Railway Statistics. A. E. Kirkus 

Road Transport, History and Development 

of. J. Paterson , . . . , .60 

Transport Undertakings, The Rights and 

Duties of. H. B. Davies . . . .50 

Trigonometry for Engineers, Primer of. W. G. 

Dunkley . , . . . . .50 

Trigonometry for Navigating Engineers. 

W. P. Winter 10 6 

Turbo-Blowers and Compressors. W. J. 

Kearton ...... 

Turret Lathe Tools, How to Lay Out . 
Union Textile Fabrication. R. Beaumont 



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Ventilation, Pumping, and Haulage, The 

Mathematics of. F. Birks .... 
Volumetric Analysis. J. B. Coppock 
Volumetric Work, A Course of. E. Clark 
Water Mains, The Lay-out of Small. H. H. 

Hellins ........ 

Water Power Engineering. F. F. Fergusson . 
Waterworks for Urban and Rural Districts. 

H. C. Adams ....... 

Weaving. W. P. Crankshaw .... 

Weaving and Manufacturing, Handbook of. 

H. Greenwood . . . . . .50 

Weaving, Embroidery and Tapestry. A. H. 

Christie 10 6 

Weaving for Beginners. L. Hooper . .5 0- 

Weaving, Handloom. L. Hooper . . . 10 6 

Weaving with Small Appliances. L. Hooper — 

(1) The Weaving Board . . ] 

(2) Tablet Weaving . . . [ Each 7 6 

(3) Table Loom Weaving . . ) 
Welding, Electric. L. B. Wilson . . .50 
Welding. Electric Arc and Oxy-acetylene. 

E. A. Atkins 7 6 

Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, An 

Introduction to. J. A. Fleming . . .36 

Wireless Telegraphy, Continuous Wave. 

B. E. G. Mittell 2 6- 

Wireless Telegraphy, Directive. Direction 

and Position Finding, etc. L. H. Walter . 
Wood-Block Printing. F. Morley Fletcher 
WooDCARViNG. C. G. Leland .... 

WOODCARVING DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. G. 

Jack 

Woodwork, Manual Instruction. S. Barter . 
Woollen Yarn Production. T. Lawson . 
Wool Substitutes. R. Beaumont 
Workshop Gauges. L. Burn .... 
Writing and Illuminating and Lettering. E. 

Johnston . . . . . . .8 6' 

X-Rays, Industrial Application of. P. H. S. 

Kempton . . . . . . .26 

Yarns and Fabrics, Testing of. H. P. Curtis 5 
Zinc and its Alloys. T. E. Lones . . .3 0' 



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